Saturday, November 8, 2008

Journal on Social Exclusion

INTRODUCTION
This journal work will discuss the concept of social Exclusion. The focus will be on the following key areas:-
(i) Definition /Meaning of Social Exclusion
(ii) Literature review of social Exclusion
(iii) Causes of social exclusion
(iv) Social exclusion in Relation to Marginalization and poverty
(v) Approaches in fighting social exclusion (Empirical)
(vi) ANTI – Social Exclusion policies (Policy).
(vii) Anti-social exclusion policies – Tanzania context.
(viii) Conclusion based on lessons learned and my own opinions.
(ix) References























MEANING OR DEFINITION OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION
The first paradigm, sees exclusion as a breaking of the society and the individual.
Implicitly there is a core of shared values and rights a moral Community, around which social order is constructed; a variety of institutions provide the mechanisms for integrating individuals in society, and exclusion reflects their failure and a possible danger to the social body. This Model provides the underpinnings of the Republican notion of the French state. It is within this model that the present notion of exclusion originated. It is rather obvious why; there is a clear and unitary notion of what it is, that individuals and groups are excluded from.
The second paradigm sees exclusion as resulting from individual behaviors and exchanges. Societies are composed of individuals with diverse interests and capabilities, and the structure of society is built around a division of labor and exchange in both economic and social spheres. Individuals may excluded because the part ten of interests or contractual relationship among other actors, or their exclusion may occur as a result of discrimination of market failure or unforced rights. Society can be seen as composed of domains and are excluded from others.
Exclusion from one social domain does not imply exclusion from all. The third paradigm, sees society as hierarchical, with different groups controlling resources. Insiders protect their domains against outsiders by constructing barriers and restricting access to occupations, to cultural resources, to goods and services. At the same time, they promote solidarity within the group. Membership of society is therefore necessarily within the group. Membership of society may be complex, with a hierarchy of inclusions in the solidarity model. The rules determining access to the move privileged groups also determine vulnerability and determine who is excluded. The identity of excluded is thus socially constructed. The same mechanisms may exclude immigrants in one situation the illiterate in another and religions minorities in a third.
Exclusion is a central aspect of this paradigm; mechanism which underpins the existing structure of society.
NB:- These paradigms exhaust the different ways in which social integration can be conceptualized, at the same time they providing the meaning of the concept of social of social exclusion. Social exclusion can then be defined basing on two main frame works:-
☼ Social exclusion on an individual point of view:- Focuses directly on the nature of the lives of which people are leading. Excluded persons or groups are seen to be in a situation of disadvantage, just as those with low incomes are seen to be disadvantaged. To describe persons as “Socially excluded” (Rather than to describe them as “poor”)is to suggest that they are socially isolated in some sense, that they “have” or experience weak social relatedness. The socially excluded may lack social ties to the family, local community, voluntary associations, trade unions, or even the nation. They may be disadvantaged interims of the extent of their legal rights.
☼ Social exclusion as a property of societies this an institutional perspective in which social exclusion is a property of the basic institutional frame work and on going institutional arrangements within which individuals and groups “make choices and go about their daily business of making a living. The focus of social exclusion in this sense is not person, but rather the institutions, the rules, formal and informal, explicit and tacit, which enable and constrain human interaction. Social exclusion is present as a structural property of a socio-economic system. A society is divided segment ally and “the various segments of society organize around different rules, processes, and institutions that produce different system of incentives and disincentive to which individuals respond”
☼ Despite the diverse definitions, social exclusion is always seen as a state of ill-being and disablement, which individuals and groups experience. Social exclusion encompasses both welfare as congenially understood in economic analysis of poverty; i.e an –inability of persons to find employment; to make a live hood etc. Finally, the studies have shown that social exclusion can be analyzed as both a process and state. In both cases, this entails going beyond resources allocation, power relations, culture and social identity.

LITRATURE REVIEW OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION:-
As an analytical concept, the term social exclusion was originally coined in France in 1974 to refer to various categories of people-labeled “social problems’ and who were unprotected by social insurance. Social exclusion in this context referred to a process of social disintegration, in the sense of a progressive rupture of the relation ships between the individual and society. But since the late 1980s, the term social exclusion “has also been propagated the European commission, which was increasing concerned with the problems of long-term unemployment and of unskilled workers and immigrants.
Whilst the use and power of the nation of social exclusion was well established in Western Europe and also to some extent in the USA , with the label of the “underclass”, it was largely absent from the social development debate in the non-industrialized World. And I was precisely one of the objective of the IILS/UNDP Project to test its relevance and value.
CAUSES OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION / SOCIAL DISADVANTAGE:-
The study which was conducted in certain Countries, including Peru in Latin America, Tanzania in Africa, India and Thailand in South and South-east Asia, Yemen from the Arab World; and Russia from the former USSR; the study shows that there is a variety of possible causes of social exclusion. Some of them are:-
☼ In some Countries social exclusion has been found to be caused by policies and institutions, mostly on individual levels.
☼ In other Countries the cause has been found to be brought about by the institutional structures, both formal and informal, and exuberated by the working of the markets; the scope and configuration of citizenships rights and the pattern of associational life, including discrimination Tory practices, of civil society. The associational life and pervasive values in civil society intertwine with the working of the markets and states to reinforce, or counteracts, social exclusion in the study of perm social exclusion is found in economic, political and cultural processes, and the basic markets of labor, credit, and insurance because they do not clear through price adjustments and, quantitative rationing, based on screening devices and selection procedures occurs. Some of the people who are capable and willing to participate in market exchange are excluded or relegated to segments which are less profitable or more risky. Secondly, exclusions from universal rights and political processes are derived from a number of counter veiling tendencies. For example, the elite might be willing to share certain powers and recognize certain rights for the population as a whole. Finally, cultural exclusions arise in the sense that certain individuals cannot participate in social networks, eg clubs. There is a hierarchy of these networks and ruling classes set restrictive conditions membership in high class networks in order to preserve privileges. The studies of India and Yemen both identifying factors which facilitate and constrain the ability of the state to deliver, to all citizens, basic social rights such as education, health and social security. This was found to be due to slow economic growth (or stagnation) limits the amount of financial resources available for social expenditures, whilst at the household level, low incomes limit the ability of the poor to pay for services. Administrative inefficiencies, weak organization, lack of priority setting and of accountability and poor planning, a wrongly focused structure of expenditure, all compound the problem of lack of resources. But the critical factor which prevents the realization of these rights which the government recognize as desirable, is the working of the political system.
☼ The other cause of social exclusion has been identified to be brought about by international relationships among nations. International relationships have important effects on domestic economic, social and political institutions. Although social exclusion within Countries in the result of the way in which their economic, social and political institutions are changing and the nature of domestic policies, the studies make it clear that social exclusion cannot simply be attributed by “internal factors’, but international relationships are increasingly and ever more deeply implicated in what is happening in Countries. In Tanzania, India and Russia, a major event shaping social exclusion is the reform programmes which are encouraging economic activities. In each case, reforms which are geared to open up economies to competition from the erosion world have been associated with the erosion of old social integration. In this process, citizenship rights have shrink.

SOCIAL EXCLUSION – RELATED TO MARGINALIZATION AND POVERTY:-
Social exclusion can be seen as an element within a narrow definition of poverty in terms of the minimum standard of living below terms the minimum standard of living below which one is absolutely poor. This is implemented using a consumption – based poverty line, which would include not simply food and other basic material needs, but also an amount reflecting the cost of participating in the everyday life of society. In the other hand social exclusion can be seen as replacement for poverty. This two nations leads to conclude that social exclusion is a broader notion of poverty. In the study carried in Tanzania and Russia, material deprivation and possessions is one aspect of social exclusion.

SOCIAL EXCLUSION – CURRENT STATUS (EMPIRICAL REVIEW)
The studies carried in a set of Countries, both rich and poor, suggest that social exclusion appears to occur within all economies. But it manifests itself in different forms and intensities as the result of the cultural and institutional specifities, and the differences in perception of which are the most critical processes. In Industrialized (rich) Countries, social exclusion is particularly related to long term unemployment and the loss of acquired rights, particularly those associated with work.. social exclusion in developing (poor) Countries takes different forms which are related to the degree and nature of incorporation into wider society through processes of market formation and the provision of citizenship rights.

APPROACHES IN FIGHTING SOCIAL EXCLUSION
Three approaches has been distinguished; and they are based on the premises that poverty reduction required goods people and institutions
☼ “Goods – Centered approach”:- Here the focus is command over commodities, seen as a source of welfare of utility. The goods centered approach identifies peoples as being poor when their living standard falls below same minimum worm. This is most basically seen as having income insufficient to obtain a food – intake which maintains physical efficiency; and other basic needs.
☼ The “people – Centered “ approach:- This approach; focuses on improving peoples lives. Here what matters is the nature of the live which people lead, and in particular their freedom of choice in terms of achieving valued “function” such as being well – nourished, healthy, literate. This approach sees poverty as lack of human development which is reflected in the actual achievements of people, with regards to living long lives, being adequately nourished etc.
☼ Institution Centered approach :- This approach focus on the institutional arrangements which are in place, i.e. the rules which provide the enabling framework within which individuals and groups make choices and go about their daily business of making a living. The approach is is sensitive to consequences of institutions for poverty outcomes. The overriding goal of an institution center approach to poverty reduction of civil and political rights. This implies that a necessary condition and implementation is the existence of democratic governance.

ANTI-SOCIAL EXCLUSION POLICIES:-
The main policy arena in institutional approach to poverty reduction are macro-policies. These are policies which seeks to influence the relationship between macro-policies and individual outcomes. The basic assumption is that the outcomes of macro-policies and the pattern of growth depend on the social matrix within which policies are introduced and growth occurs. The central issue of policy design is how to change institutions so that poverty in the sense of well being is reduced.
In the institution centered approach founded on a social exclusion perspective, it is necessary to extend the scope of meso-policy analysis to production sectors. Industrial organization including for example relations between small-scales and large-scale enterprises, wage settings institutions agrarian institutions including linked credit and product market contracts, poverty rights systems, are important elements of a meso-policy.

ANTI-SOCIAL EXCLUSION POLICIES IN TANZANIA
Since independence in 1961, the government of Tanzania has had strategies to fight social exclusion or poverty; and it has been the nation main goal. In 1997, the government adopted the National poverty reduction strategy, which spells out a vision of society without abject poverty, and hence reduce social exclusion. This vision which is in line with International development goals (MDGS) remains as a point of reference for fighting social exclusion (Marginalization of the rural poor) or poverty.
The most important action document is the “poverty reduction strategy paper” (PRSP). The final draft was adopted in 2000, incorporating the views of stakeholders, with objectives and programs. Among adopted strategies are the MKUKUTA and MKURABITA.

CONCLUSION
Social exclusion, not only demise Citizens, to contribute potentially in bringing about their own economic development, but social exclusion can lead to social insecurity brought about by social inequalities, where the majority of the citizens lives in abject poverty. In a situation where fewer citizens are very rich and the majority are marginalized; the marginalized part of society tends to create hate rage as well as getting engaged in spontaneous crimes for example drugs abuse, high level robbery etc.
In order to avoid such situation and eliminate social exclusion a justice system must be in place. This includes system, which not only builds human capital but also socializes individuals as citizens; the right to access and owns tools of production for example land, capital are vital in creating a just society.



REFERENCE

International Institute for labor studies (IILS). Part tens and causes of social exclusion; ISBN 92 – 90014-587-0, Firstr published 1996.

http://WWW.ilo.org/public/english/bureu/inst/papers/synth/socex/index.htm

United Republic of Tanzania – interim poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP) – Prepared by the Tanzania Authorities, March 14th 2000.

Internet, Microsoft ® Encrata ® Enclopedia 2004.

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