INTRODUCTION:
This assignment on data analysis and presentation has the main aim of processing and analyzing the raw-data collected during participatory assessment conducted in Ngaramtoni village; Kimunyak Ward, Arusha Region, between October 2007 and April 2008. This includes community assessment, economic assessment, environmental assessment and health assessment; the analysis of the raw data will includes:-
Data processing:- i.e (i) Checking and Editing data (ii) Coding of data.
Data Distribution:- i.e (i) Frequency distribution (ii) Percentage distribution.
(iii) Cumulative distribution
Tabulation:- i.e (i) Data are put together in tables form it amount to just counting the number of cases falling into each of several variables.
Data analysis and interpretation:- In most cases, it is difficult to explain raw data.
Diagrammatic representation:- i.e (i) Graphs, (ii) Histograms, (iii) pie charts etc.
presentation of data or Research findings:-
The research findings will serve as a basis for the Ngaramtoni community i.e ordinary citizens, village government leaders, NGOs, CBOs business community and many other interested’ stakeholders residing inside and outside Ngaramtoni village, understood key social economic and political problems, which press for immediate attention and efforts to solve them..
UNDERSTANDING OF KEY CONCEPTS IN DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION:
Data processing:- This mainly involves various manipulations necessary for preparing the data analysis. It involves editing, categorizing the open ended questions, coding, computerizing ,preparation of tables and diagrams.
(i) Editing Data:- When the survey is conducted and data obtained through questionnaires and schedules, the answers, either may not be ticked at proper places, or some questions may be left unanswered, or given in a form which need re-construction and administered afresh, and ignoring or re-administering those which are not answered or wrongly ticked.
(ii) Coding Data:_ Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning numbers to the various categories of variable to be used in data analysis. Coding is generally done while preparing questions and before finalizing the questionnaires and interview schedules. However, sometimes, when questions are not pre-coded coding is done after the field work. This can be done using code book or code sheet or computer card. It is important to assign codes to questionnaires before going to the field; this save time and money.
(iii) Data distribution:- Distribution of data is important in the presentation of data. There are three types of distributions (a) Frequency distribution, (b) Percentage distribution and (c) Cumulative distribution. In social science research, frequency distribution is commonly used.
(iv) Tabulation of Data:- After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is the data are put together in tables and may also undergo some other forms of statistical analysis. It amounts to simply counting the number of cases falling into different categories.
(v) Data analysis and Interpretation:- Analysis is the process of putting data in order into constituent parts of the sake of obtaining answers to research questions. Interpretation takes the results of analysis, makes inferences and draws conclusions about the relationship. In other words to interprete is to explain about outcome of the analysis.
NB: The analysis of a research is done in four stages:- (a) Categorization, (b) Frequency Distribution, (c) Measurement and ( d)Interpretation.
Þ Categorization:- Categories are set-up according to the research problem and purpose of study. These are mutually problem and purpose of study. These are mutually exclusive, independent and exhaustive.
Þ Frequency distribution:- Frequency distribution is the tabulation of quantitative data in classes. It indicates the number of cases or distribution of cases falling into different categories. There are two types of frequency distribution i.e primary and secondary.
* Primary:- Primary distribution is descriptive only it gives the number of cases in each class.
Only it gives the number of cases in each class.
* Secondary:- Secondary distribution is the comparison with relations e.g comparing the
frequency of men with women, or educated with illiterate.
Þ Measurement:- Measurement could be in a form central tendencies i.e mean, mode and median or statistical averages.
* Mean:- Is the arithmetic average of a set of measures.
* Median:- Is the central measure of any set of measures.
* Mode:- Is the most frequently according measure of a set of measures.
NB:- The statistical analysis sometimes may be of univariate type (Examining one variable at a time); sometimes of bivariate type (Assessing two variables at time) ; or multivariate (assessing more than two variables at a time).
Interpretation:- Interpretation of data can be descriptive, analytical from a theoretical point of view.
NB:- Interpretation leads to the following questions:-
What has the research contributed?
What is the significance of the research?
What relationship exists of the variables?
Thus Interpretation consists of the conclusion the researcher has reached.
vi. Diagrammatic Representation:- This representing / providing results using graphs, histograms,
pie charts, pyramid, Bar-diagram etc one can visualize results by examining the
diagrams/graphs.
RESEARCH TOOLS USED TO COLLECT DATA/INFORMATION FOR NGARAMTONI VILLAGE:
The tools/techniques applied in the collection of data during participatory assessment in Ngaramtoni village are as follows:-
i. Focus group
ii. Interviewing and
iii. Transect walk
Focus Group Discussion:-
Is one of the qualitative methods used in data collection. Its purpose is to obtain in depth information on concepts, perceptions and ideas of a group. A group facilitator has a role of keeping the discussion on track by asking a series of open ended questions to stimulate discussion. A focus group is usually structured and homogeneous and composed of six to nine people and the interview could last from one hour to two hours. It is used to obtain detailed information about a particular issue.
Interviewing Technique:-
It is the direct technique of data collection used in social science research. This technique has been used to collect data because has the following advantages:-
Possible to study events that are not open to observations.
Possible to study abstract factors like attitudes back emotions, reaction etc.
Possible to study phenomena in its historical back ground.
The information gathered are much more reliable.
Transect walk:-
This is an exercise in which the researcher (facilitator) together with some of the community members, make a general tour of the area understudy; it allows the team to reflect or study the current situation and through dialogue they identify constraints and opportunities. Due to the fact that the project area in question has diverse constrains and opportunities, the transect walk technique in collection of some specific data was found relevant.
ANALYSIS OF RAW-DATA COLLECTED USING THE MENTIONED THREE TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION
Raw-data were examined to detect errors, omissions, contradictions and unreasonable information to be corrected. From the ended questions, the data has been analyzed by classifying the raw data into purposeful and usable categories such as types of occupation, education level, volunteerism levels, poverty levels, income levels age of respondent, gender of respondents etc. After doing all the above; statistical package for social scientists (SPSS) software was used to describe status of various variables. Finally tabulation was based on percentages, proportions totals . The analysis was largely univariate providing distributions of individual variables, though Bivariate and multivariate analysis is sometimes done, to compare relationship between two or more variables. The analysis includes computation of frequencies, totals and percentages. For qualitative research, which is largely descriptive, computation of frequencies, totals (sums), and percentage is adequate for meaningful interpretations.
Saturday, November 8, 2008
Management and Functional Tools of management
INTRODUCTION
This paper will be geared in exploring the concept of management and the functional tools of management i.e planning organizing leading and controlling. The other main objective of this work is to analyze the application of management functional responsibilities in the context of Osotwa Mt. Meru community based conservation organization (cbco).
The work will also try to identify roles allocation in each level of Osotwa Mt. Meru community based organization, and skills required if the organizational goal is to be achieved.
Conclusion will be drawn basing on lessons learned and my own experience.
PROFILE OF OSWOTWA MT. MERU COMMUNITY BASED CONSERVATION ORGANISATION
The Osotwa Mt. Meru community based organization is a legally registered charitable non-partisan and non-governmental organization based in Arusha – Tanzania, established in 2001.
It is dedicated to addressing environmental issues and ensures ecologically sustainable development and proper use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development of the indigenous populations on the slopes of Mt. Meru. The Osotwa Mt. Meru CBCO cooperates with other community development groups and organizations to meet the developmental needs of the poor communities around Mt. Meru furthermore, equitable gender development through environmental and economic empowerment for women is a priority for the organization.
MISSION OF THE ORGANISATION
The organization mission is to alleviate poverty and raise living standards on the slopes of Mt. Meru by helping the communities to find an environmentally sustainable path self-sufficiency and stable economic growth.
VISION OF THE ORGANISATION
Osotwa Mt. Meru community based conservation organizations vision is to care for Mt. Meru for the benefit of the current and future generations.
THE GENERAL OBJECTIVE OF THE ORGANISATION
Will be to establish, coordinate and provide assistance on sustainable developmental projects as well as co-operate with other NGOs and governmental institutions in an effort to set-up viable strategic programs of activities.
Also to coordinate the relevant stakeholders to achieve conservation of natural resources and to improve grassroots community livelihoods through the following approaches:-
(i) Conserving the environment and natural resources still available on the slopes of Mt. Meru, through appropriate projects and involving the indigenous population in conservation instead of relying on the enforcement of the state laws.
(ii) Establishing and coordinate activities or projects directed to promote community development and centered on the environment conservation, such as bee-keeping, energy, solar power and ‘wind mills,’ herbal medicines etc.
(iii) Enabling opportunities for the entire community participate in assessing natural resources uses, potential problems trends, and management at different levels i.e villages, wards, district, regional and national.
OSOTWA ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE
The main organs of the organization are:-
The general assembly, the Board of Directors, the committee, the administrative staff (office bearers), and members. See diagram below:-
ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE OF OSOTWA MT. MERU CBCO.
MEMBERS
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
GENERAL ASSEMBLY
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
MANAGEMENT TEAM
OPERATIONAL
STAFF
The organizational structure of OSOTWA functions as it appears in the diagram. The general assembly is the supreme organ on the organization whose decisions shall be final and binding on other organs and members.
The board of Directors has the duty to evaluate from time to time, the functioning and performance of the organization. The executive committee has the main duty of formulating plans to carry out organizational programs. The management team is responsible in planning as well as managing day to day operations of the organization and ensuring achievement of planned goals.
The operational staff; carry out implementation of planned activities.
DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS:
Management:-
Management is best defined as a process of coordinating all resources, of an organization in order to achieve organizational objectives. Also management is defined as a process, which should be followed in a systematic manner to be able to attain some specific objectives. The management process is made up of four major discrete functions. i.e
(a). Planning (b). Organizing (c). Leading and (d). Controlling.
*Planning:
Plans are blue prints for action they are guidelines that enable members of an organization to work purposefully together to achieve a worth while end. Planning is considered primary of all managerial functions like leadership, controlling, organizing, all are outcomes of planning function.
*Organizing:
This is the structuring of work and results for the sake of Roles creation and guide people behavior in performing towards attainment of planned outcomes. In this case the structure must reflect objectives and plans because organization activities are derived from these. Also the structure must reflect the authority available and this depends on the nature of the organization in question the structure must be designed to work, to permit contributions by members of the organization.
*Leading
Implies influencing others to willingly and effectively perform their roles assigned to them in order to achieve overall organizational goal. Leading also goes beyond willingness to work, but to work with zeal and confidence. Leaders act to help organizations achieve objectives with maximum application of capabilities. Leaders do not stand behind a group to push, but they place themselves before the group and facilitate progress and inspire the group to accomplish organizational goals.
*Controlling
Is the measurement and correction of the performance of activities of subordinates in order to make sure that organizational objectives and the plans devised to attain are being accomplished. Controlling is the function of every manager in the organization, from president to supervisor. In order for managers to effectively pursue the control function, special standards must be established to enable performance evaluation.
APPLICABILITY OF FUNCTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF MANAGEMENT IN OSOTWA MT MERU COMMUNITY BASED CONSERVATION ORGANISATION:
*Planning
This management function of planning in Osotwa Mt. Meru community based conservation organization is carried out by the management team, the coordinator, the chairman and the financial controller of the organization. This implies that the planning process in Osotwa organization is not participatory, rather is the responsibility of top managers. The executive committee is just a rubber stamp of the plans as they are not involved in formulating the organizational plans, but they are informed about the plans during the executive committee meeting, and in most cases they are not interested in spending much of their time analyzing each and every plan submitted before them, rather they are interested in snacks and bites and sitting allowances.
It is important for Osotwa to change its fashion of plans formulation i.e up down and adopt down up fashion of which participation is encouraged. All levels of the organization should be given chance and encouraged to contribute to plans formulation. Participation of all levels of the organization is a key element in making the plans to succeed and realized the organization objective. In many organization who practice participation in planning process, excellent results were achieved.
*Organizing:
The organizational structure of Osotwa does not provide clear lines of authority and responsibilities. The team of Osotwa’s subordinates/operational workers has no detailed job descriptions as well as specific tasks and authority lines. Authority in Osotwa is centralized to the top managers. For the sake of improving efficiency in implementing organization plans, the Ostwas top managers must delegate/decentralize authority to subordinates or operational staff; though the top managers must retain some authority, particularly over decisions of company wide impact, and at least enough to view the plans and performance of subordinates. They should also make sure that subordinates do use the authority given in proper way and for the purpose intended, not to be used to frustrate other staff moral. Osotwa organization structure also ignore or do not have departmental units.
This makes it difficult to formulate chain of command as well as functional authority delegation. Lack of departmental units can lead of accountability. The organizational structure of Osotwa shows vague authority associated with inappropriate or misunderstood communication lines. Osotwa needs a clearly defined chart which spells out clearly what organizational positions have the authority for approving actions involving commitments and where final approval lies as well as which managers are to exercise functional authority.
Leading:
Because of poor organizing interpersonal relationship between managers and non-managers or subordinate is also poor. A clearly structured organization facilitate easy communication, which in turn enable easy leadership. Lack of departmentation also makes it difficult for Osotwa’s top management to effectively leads the lower top level staff as they are pre-occupied with wide range of decision making and have less time to monitor performance at lower levels. This could have been easily done by departmental managers or supervisors. The Osotwa organization is also likely to be faced the problem of off-goal execution of tasks by operational staff, if there is no supervisor or department manager who is closely monitoring execution of tasks and report back to the top manager if there is any serious deviation, which will lead to failure in goal achievement. It is of suggestion that ,Osotwa organization should think of developing a simple but clear organizational structure which is capable of defining peoples positions, their line of authority, roles and responsibilities, to be able to effectively and efficiently accomplished their organizational objectives
.
Organizing:
In order for people to work effectively toward accomplishing goals a structure of roles must be designed and maintained. Roles are designed for people to fill. Osotwa as a formal organization it must have a roles. Osotwa organization structure should be designed to clarify the environment so that everyone knows who is to do what and who is responsible for what results; this is important to remove obstacles to performance caused by confusion and uncertainly of assignment and to furnish a decision making communications network and supporting organizational objectives. In the logical sense of organizing; one can not organize if there is no formalized intentional structure of roles or positions. Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco if it will adapts efficient organizational structure its objectives will be met more easily, and managers and employees interest to the organization will also shoot-up. This is to say Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco, through organizing will succeed in changing chaotic and adhoc way of operation to an orderly and satisfying way of tasks execution, leading to removing conflicts between people over work or responsibilities and establishes an environment suitable for team work.
Controlling:
In essence the managerial function of controlling is the measurement and correction of the performance of activities of subordinates in order to make sure that organization objectives and the plans devised to attain them are being accomplished. In view of Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco, top and upper level control is practiced; ignoring the need of control even at lower levels. This puts the organization at greater risks of too late rectification of off plans events, leading to misery in terms of financial loses and future sustainability of the organization. For effective and efficient achievement of organizational objectives, the aspect of control has to be instituted at all levels of an organization.
The major pre-requisite of control is the existence of organization structure; the clearer, more complete and more integrated this structure is, the more effective control action can be. Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco, organization structure lacks, the above pre-requisites. This weakness can affect all other managerial functions i.e (Planning, Leading organizing and controlling). If something , is going wrong in the organization, it is difficult to know exactly who is responsible for the trouble. For example – in one company or organization, reports shows that inventory was millions of dollars above the level deemed necessary and when inquiry was made about who was responsible for inventory planning and control it was disclosed that no one below the president of the company had this responsibility, and that because of his other demanding duties he could not personally control inventories. This is the typical situation of what is happening in Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco, due to lack of concrete and clear organizational structure. Control also requires the establishment of standards. Standards may be of many kinds. Among the best are verifiable goals or objectives whether started in quantitative or qualitative terms this is regularly set in a well established systems of managing by objectives. The problem facing many organizations, Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco included is the setting of clear and easily verifiable goals/objectives. This situation leads to difficulty in setting performance standards, which in turn hampers efficient control.
Control function in management can also be summarized as feedback system.
Example:- Feedback system - Management Control:
Comparison of Actual Against standards
Measurement of Actual
performance
Actual
performance
Identification of deviations
Analysis of cause of deviation
Program of corrective action
Implementation of corrections
Devised performance
The sooner managers in all levels of the organization know that activities for which they are responsible are not proceeding in accordance with plans, the faster they can take action to make corrections.
SKILLS REQUIRED TO ACHIEVE ORGANISATIONAL GOALS:
In sense effective managers need different skills and the relative importance of skills may vary with the level in the organization. Robert L. Katz identified three kinds of skills for administrators 2.
1. Technical skills pertains to knowledge and proficiency in activities involving methods, processes, and procedures. Thus it involves working with tools and specific techniques. For example accountants apply specific techniques in doing their jobs.
2. Human skills is the ability to work with people; it is cooperative effort it is team work; it is creation of an environment in which people feel secure and free express their opinions.
3. Conceptual skill-refers to the ability to see the “big picture” to understand relationships among the elements.
NB: The relative importance of these skills may differ for various levels in the
organizational structure. Technical skills are of greatest importance at the supervisory
level. Human skills are also important in the frequent interactions with subordinates.
Conceptual skills – important at the middle management conceptual and human skills
are of critical importance, but there is relatively little need for technical abilities.
The differences in skill requirements have important implications for the selection of managers and other staff in all levels of organization.
For managers, the most generally appreciated and emphasized skills are analytical and problem solving abilities. Managers must be able to identify problems, analyze complex solutions solving the problem uncounted, exploit the opportunities brought about by the problem. But problem identification and analysis are not enough; also the will to implement the solution is equally important this requires recognition of the emotions, need and motivation of the people involved in initiating the required change.
Apart from various skills that effective managers are thought to need several PERSONAL character are thought to need, several personal characteristics are also important:-
(1) Desire to Manage (2) Ability to communicate with empathy. (3) Integrity and Honest. The
person’s experience his/her past performance as a manager, is another added advantage for a good and effective Manager
Osotwa Mt. Meru Cbco as a not for profit organization, but established to achieve specific objectives; needs to have the three types of skills in order to be able to successfully achieve its goals:-
(1) Technical skills (2) Human skills and (3) conceptual skills. For the time being the organization is seriously lacking technical skills and the Human skills and conceptual skills need also to be improve
CONCLUSION
All sorts of organizations, be business/profit oriented, not for profit, or faith organizations has specific goals/objectives to achieve during its life- time. Obviously for any of the organization to be able to successfully accomplish its goals the knowledge of the basic principles and techniques of Management is of significant importance. Because every organization small or big, for profit or not for profit all looking towards a particular goal/objective; it is suggestive that the style of managing by objective could lead to high level of success. Managing by objective is a result oriented planning. It forces managers to think of planning for results, rather than merely planning activities or work.
Other benefits of management by objective are as follows:-
* It forces clarification of organizational roles and structures. Organizations that have embarked
on managing by system have often discovered organizational deficiencies .
* Management by objective elicits commitment for performance. People in the organization no
longer do work following instructions, guidance and decisions but they do with clearly
defined purpose.
*Management by objective – helps to develop effective controls and sparks more effective
planning.
REFERENCE
1. Koontz H; O’Donnell C. and Welirich H. (1980), Management, McGraw Hill International Book Company
2. Henry L. and Williams J. (1981) Management and organization, Southern – Western Publishing Company; Cincinnati Ohio.
3. Dennis Lock (1983), Project Management; Grower Publishing Company Ltd, Groft Road, Aldershot, Hants Gull 3 Hr, England
This paper will be geared in exploring the concept of management and the functional tools of management i.e planning organizing leading and controlling. The other main objective of this work is to analyze the application of management functional responsibilities in the context of Osotwa Mt. Meru community based conservation organization (cbco).
The work will also try to identify roles allocation in each level of Osotwa Mt. Meru community based organization, and skills required if the organizational goal is to be achieved.
Conclusion will be drawn basing on lessons learned and my own experience.
PROFILE OF OSWOTWA MT. MERU COMMUNITY BASED CONSERVATION ORGANISATION
The Osotwa Mt. Meru community based organization is a legally registered charitable non-partisan and non-governmental organization based in Arusha – Tanzania, established in 2001.
It is dedicated to addressing environmental issues and ensures ecologically sustainable development and proper use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development of the indigenous populations on the slopes of Mt. Meru. The Osotwa Mt. Meru CBCO cooperates with other community development groups and organizations to meet the developmental needs of the poor communities around Mt. Meru furthermore, equitable gender development through environmental and economic empowerment for women is a priority for the organization.
MISSION OF THE ORGANISATION
The organization mission is to alleviate poverty and raise living standards on the slopes of Mt. Meru by helping the communities to find an environmentally sustainable path self-sufficiency and stable economic growth.
VISION OF THE ORGANISATION
Osotwa Mt. Meru community based conservation organizations vision is to care for Mt. Meru for the benefit of the current and future generations.
THE GENERAL OBJECTIVE OF THE ORGANISATION
Will be to establish, coordinate and provide assistance on sustainable developmental projects as well as co-operate with other NGOs and governmental institutions in an effort to set-up viable strategic programs of activities.
Also to coordinate the relevant stakeholders to achieve conservation of natural resources and to improve grassroots community livelihoods through the following approaches:-
(i) Conserving the environment and natural resources still available on the slopes of Mt. Meru, through appropriate projects and involving the indigenous population in conservation instead of relying on the enforcement of the state laws.
(ii) Establishing and coordinate activities or projects directed to promote community development and centered on the environment conservation, such as bee-keeping, energy, solar power and ‘wind mills,’ herbal medicines etc.
(iii) Enabling opportunities for the entire community participate in assessing natural resources uses, potential problems trends, and management at different levels i.e villages, wards, district, regional and national.
OSOTWA ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE
The main organs of the organization are:-
The general assembly, the Board of Directors, the committee, the administrative staff (office bearers), and members. See diagram below:-
ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE OF OSOTWA MT. MERU CBCO.
MEMBERS
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
GENERAL ASSEMBLY
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
MANAGEMENT TEAM
OPERATIONAL
STAFF
The organizational structure of OSOTWA functions as it appears in the diagram. The general assembly is the supreme organ on the organization whose decisions shall be final and binding on other organs and members.
The board of Directors has the duty to evaluate from time to time, the functioning and performance of the organization. The executive committee has the main duty of formulating plans to carry out organizational programs. The management team is responsible in planning as well as managing day to day operations of the organization and ensuring achievement of planned goals.
The operational staff; carry out implementation of planned activities.
DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS:
Management:-
Management is best defined as a process of coordinating all resources, of an organization in order to achieve organizational objectives. Also management is defined as a process, which should be followed in a systematic manner to be able to attain some specific objectives. The management process is made up of four major discrete functions. i.e
(a). Planning (b). Organizing (c). Leading and (d). Controlling.
*Planning:
Plans are blue prints for action they are guidelines that enable members of an organization to work purposefully together to achieve a worth while end. Planning is considered primary of all managerial functions like leadership, controlling, organizing, all are outcomes of planning function.
*Organizing:
This is the structuring of work and results for the sake of Roles creation and guide people behavior in performing towards attainment of planned outcomes. In this case the structure must reflect objectives and plans because organization activities are derived from these. Also the structure must reflect the authority available and this depends on the nature of the organization in question the structure must be designed to work, to permit contributions by members of the organization.
*Leading
Implies influencing others to willingly and effectively perform their roles assigned to them in order to achieve overall organizational goal. Leading also goes beyond willingness to work, but to work with zeal and confidence. Leaders act to help organizations achieve objectives with maximum application of capabilities. Leaders do not stand behind a group to push, but they place themselves before the group and facilitate progress and inspire the group to accomplish organizational goals.
*Controlling
Is the measurement and correction of the performance of activities of subordinates in order to make sure that organizational objectives and the plans devised to attain are being accomplished. Controlling is the function of every manager in the organization, from president to supervisor. In order for managers to effectively pursue the control function, special standards must be established to enable performance evaluation.
APPLICABILITY OF FUNCTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF MANAGEMENT IN OSOTWA MT MERU COMMUNITY BASED CONSERVATION ORGANISATION:
*Planning
This management function of planning in Osotwa Mt. Meru community based conservation organization is carried out by the management team, the coordinator, the chairman and the financial controller of the organization. This implies that the planning process in Osotwa organization is not participatory, rather is the responsibility of top managers. The executive committee is just a rubber stamp of the plans as they are not involved in formulating the organizational plans, but they are informed about the plans during the executive committee meeting, and in most cases they are not interested in spending much of their time analyzing each and every plan submitted before them, rather they are interested in snacks and bites and sitting allowances.
It is important for Osotwa to change its fashion of plans formulation i.e up down and adopt down up fashion of which participation is encouraged. All levels of the organization should be given chance and encouraged to contribute to plans formulation. Participation of all levels of the organization is a key element in making the plans to succeed and realized the organization objective. In many organization who practice participation in planning process, excellent results were achieved.
*Organizing:
The organizational structure of Osotwa does not provide clear lines of authority and responsibilities. The team of Osotwa’s subordinates/operational workers has no detailed job descriptions as well as specific tasks and authority lines. Authority in Osotwa is centralized to the top managers. For the sake of improving efficiency in implementing organization plans, the Ostwas top managers must delegate/decentralize authority to subordinates or operational staff; though the top managers must retain some authority, particularly over decisions of company wide impact, and at least enough to view the plans and performance of subordinates. They should also make sure that subordinates do use the authority given in proper way and for the purpose intended, not to be used to frustrate other staff moral. Osotwa organization structure also ignore or do not have departmental units.
This makes it difficult to formulate chain of command as well as functional authority delegation. Lack of departmental units can lead of accountability. The organizational structure of Osotwa shows vague authority associated with inappropriate or misunderstood communication lines. Osotwa needs a clearly defined chart which spells out clearly what organizational positions have the authority for approving actions involving commitments and where final approval lies as well as which managers are to exercise functional authority.
Leading:
Because of poor organizing interpersonal relationship between managers and non-managers or subordinate is also poor. A clearly structured organization facilitate easy communication, which in turn enable easy leadership. Lack of departmentation also makes it difficult for Osotwa’s top management to effectively leads the lower top level staff as they are pre-occupied with wide range of decision making and have less time to monitor performance at lower levels. This could have been easily done by departmental managers or supervisors. The Osotwa organization is also likely to be faced the problem of off-goal execution of tasks by operational staff, if there is no supervisor or department manager who is closely monitoring execution of tasks and report back to the top manager if there is any serious deviation, which will lead to failure in goal achievement. It is of suggestion that ,Osotwa organization should think of developing a simple but clear organizational structure which is capable of defining peoples positions, their line of authority, roles and responsibilities, to be able to effectively and efficiently accomplished their organizational objectives
.
Organizing:
In order for people to work effectively toward accomplishing goals a structure of roles must be designed and maintained. Roles are designed for people to fill. Osotwa as a formal organization it must have a roles. Osotwa organization structure should be designed to clarify the environment so that everyone knows who is to do what and who is responsible for what results; this is important to remove obstacles to performance caused by confusion and uncertainly of assignment and to furnish a decision making communications network and supporting organizational objectives. In the logical sense of organizing; one can not organize if there is no formalized intentional structure of roles or positions. Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco if it will adapts efficient organizational structure its objectives will be met more easily, and managers and employees interest to the organization will also shoot-up. This is to say Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco, through organizing will succeed in changing chaotic and adhoc way of operation to an orderly and satisfying way of tasks execution, leading to removing conflicts between people over work or responsibilities and establishes an environment suitable for team work.
Controlling:
In essence the managerial function of controlling is the measurement and correction of the performance of activities of subordinates in order to make sure that organization objectives and the plans devised to attain them are being accomplished. In view of Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco, top and upper level control is practiced; ignoring the need of control even at lower levels. This puts the organization at greater risks of too late rectification of off plans events, leading to misery in terms of financial loses and future sustainability of the organization. For effective and efficient achievement of organizational objectives, the aspect of control has to be instituted at all levels of an organization.
The major pre-requisite of control is the existence of organization structure; the clearer, more complete and more integrated this structure is, the more effective control action can be. Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco, organization structure lacks, the above pre-requisites. This weakness can affect all other managerial functions i.e (Planning, Leading organizing and controlling). If something , is going wrong in the organization, it is difficult to know exactly who is responsible for the trouble. For example – in one company or organization, reports shows that inventory was millions of dollars above the level deemed necessary and when inquiry was made about who was responsible for inventory planning and control it was disclosed that no one below the president of the company had this responsibility, and that because of his other demanding duties he could not personally control inventories. This is the typical situation of what is happening in Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco, due to lack of concrete and clear organizational structure. Control also requires the establishment of standards. Standards may be of many kinds. Among the best are verifiable goals or objectives whether started in quantitative or qualitative terms this is regularly set in a well established systems of managing by objectives. The problem facing many organizations, Osotwa Mt. Meru cbco included is the setting of clear and easily verifiable goals/objectives. This situation leads to difficulty in setting performance standards, which in turn hampers efficient control.
Control function in management can also be summarized as feedback system.
Example:- Feedback system - Management Control:
Comparison of Actual Against standards
Measurement of Actual
performance
Actual
performance
Identification of deviations
Analysis of cause of deviation
Program of corrective action
Implementation of corrections
Devised performance
The sooner managers in all levels of the organization know that activities for which they are responsible are not proceeding in accordance with plans, the faster they can take action to make corrections.
SKILLS REQUIRED TO ACHIEVE ORGANISATIONAL GOALS:
In sense effective managers need different skills and the relative importance of skills may vary with the level in the organization. Robert L. Katz identified three kinds of skills for administrators 2.
1. Technical skills pertains to knowledge and proficiency in activities involving methods, processes, and procedures. Thus it involves working with tools and specific techniques. For example accountants apply specific techniques in doing their jobs.
2. Human skills is the ability to work with people; it is cooperative effort it is team work; it is creation of an environment in which people feel secure and free express their opinions.
3. Conceptual skill-refers to the ability to see the “big picture” to understand relationships among the elements.
NB: The relative importance of these skills may differ for various levels in the
organizational structure. Technical skills are of greatest importance at the supervisory
level. Human skills are also important in the frequent interactions with subordinates.
Conceptual skills – important at the middle management conceptual and human skills
are of critical importance, but there is relatively little need for technical abilities.
The differences in skill requirements have important implications for the selection of managers and other staff in all levels of organization.
For managers, the most generally appreciated and emphasized skills are analytical and problem solving abilities. Managers must be able to identify problems, analyze complex solutions solving the problem uncounted, exploit the opportunities brought about by the problem. But problem identification and analysis are not enough; also the will to implement the solution is equally important this requires recognition of the emotions, need and motivation of the people involved in initiating the required change.
Apart from various skills that effective managers are thought to need several PERSONAL character are thought to need, several personal characteristics are also important:-
(1) Desire to Manage (2) Ability to communicate with empathy. (3) Integrity and Honest. The
person’s experience his/her past performance as a manager, is another added advantage for a good and effective Manager
Osotwa Mt. Meru Cbco as a not for profit organization, but established to achieve specific objectives; needs to have the three types of skills in order to be able to successfully achieve its goals:-
(1) Technical skills (2) Human skills and (3) conceptual skills. For the time being the organization is seriously lacking technical skills and the Human skills and conceptual skills need also to be improve
CONCLUSION
All sorts of organizations, be business/profit oriented, not for profit, or faith organizations has specific goals/objectives to achieve during its life- time. Obviously for any of the organization to be able to successfully accomplish its goals the knowledge of the basic principles and techniques of Management is of significant importance. Because every organization small or big, for profit or not for profit all looking towards a particular goal/objective; it is suggestive that the style of managing by objective could lead to high level of success. Managing by objective is a result oriented planning. It forces managers to think of planning for results, rather than merely planning activities or work.
Other benefits of management by objective are as follows:-
* It forces clarification of organizational roles and structures. Organizations that have embarked
on managing by system have often discovered organizational deficiencies .
* Management by objective elicits commitment for performance. People in the organization no
longer do work following instructions, guidance and decisions but they do with clearly
defined purpose.
*Management by objective – helps to develop effective controls and sparks more effective
planning.
REFERENCE
1. Koontz H; O’Donnell C. and Welirich H. (1980), Management, McGraw Hill International Book Company
2. Henry L. and Williams J. (1981) Management and organization, Southern – Western Publishing Company; Cincinnati Ohio.
3. Dennis Lock (1983), Project Management; Grower Publishing Company Ltd, Groft Road, Aldershot, Hants Gull 3 Hr, England
Journal On Social Capital
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this journal work is to provide the meaning behind the concept of “Social capital.” Logically the concept of social capital is currently receiving a lot of attention from development agencies and research institutions. Part of the attention has been on its definition.
This journal work will tries to put forward some of the definitions, provided by various thinkers, social scientists and researchers.
The journal will also covers the general frame work of social capital in terms of:-
- Types of social capital
- Measurement of social capital
- Social capital and civil society
- Social capital and third world
- Creation of social capital
- Benefits of social capital
- The bad side of social
- Intervention or dimensions to strengthen social capital.
- Conclusion based on knowledge learned and my own views and comments.
RANGE OF DEFINITIONS ON SOCIAL CAPITAL
The term social capital was first used in the 1980s by Bourdien and Coleman. While the themes above are consistently mentioned throught the literature on social capital there are many definitions of social capital.
Bourdien and Wacquant, 1992, definition:-
Social capital is the sum of the resources, actual or virtual, that accrue to an individual or a group by virtue of processing a durable net-work of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition.
Wendy stone and Jody Hughes July 2000 state social capital as:-
Simply as networks of social relations characterized by norms of trust and reciprocity. The essence of social capital is quality social relations. Thus social capital can be understood as a resource to collective action, which may lead to a broad range of outcomes of varying social scale.
World Bank (2000) what is social capital?:-
The institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society’s social interactions.
Narayan (1997) voices of the poor-poverty and social capital in Tanzania:-
Social capital are rules, norms, obligations, reciprocity and trust embedded in social relations, social structures and society institutional arrangements which enables members to achieve their individual and community objective.
NB:- Many definitions define what social capital is and what it does. In fact, there seems to be broader agreement in the literature about what social capital does, than what it is in general it is widely agreed that social capital facilitates mutually beneficial collective action.
TYPES OF SOCIAL CAPITAL:
Robert D. Putman, an American, Harvard political scientist, in this pioneering study, speaks of two main components of the concept:
- (i) Bounding social capital and
- (ii) Bridging social capital
Bounding refers to the value assigned to social networks between homogeneous groups of people. and – Bridging refers to that of social networks between socially heterogeneous groups. Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bounding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs create bridging social capital. For Tanzania situation one can site bonding social capital example being cooperatives e.g Agricultural marketing cooperatives, and an example for bridging social capital can be money bending institutions e.g PRIDE, SEDA etc. Bridging social capital is argued to have a host other benefits for societies governments, individuals, and communities Putnam noted that joining an organization cuts in half an individual’s chance of dying within the next year.
The distinction is useful in highlighting how social capital may not always be beneficial for society as a whole (Through it is always an asset for those individuals and groups involved). Horizontal networks of individual Citizens and groups that enhance community productivity and cohesion are said to be positive social capital assets whereas self-serving exclusive gangs and hierarchical patronage systems that operate at cross purposes to societal interests can be thought of as negative social capital burdens on society.
MEASUREMENT OF SOCIAL CAPITAL
There is no widely held consensus on how to measure social capital, which is on of its weakness. One can usually initiatively sense the level/amount of social capital present in a given relationship (Regardless of type or scale), but quantitatively.
Measuring has proven somewhat complicated. This has resulted in different metrics for different functions. In measuring political social capital, it is common to take the sum of society’s membership of its groups. Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with low membership (such as communities) still add up to be significant. The level of cohesion of a group also affects its social capital. However again, there is no true quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness. It is entirely subjective. How a group relates to the rest of society also affects social capital; but in different manner. Strong internal ties can in some cases weaken the group is geared towards crime; distrust, intolerance, violence or hatred forwards others. The ku klux klan and the Mafia are examples of these kinds of organizations.
CIVIL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL CAPITAL:
A number of authors give definitions of civil society that refers to voluntary associations and organizations is closely related to the definition of the “third sector”, which consists of “Private organizations that are formed and sustained by groups of people acting voluntarily and without seeking personal profit to provide benefits, for authors as Walzer, Alessandri, Newton and others, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the “third sector” that individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks. These voluntary associations also connect people with each other, build trust and reciprocity through informal, loosely structured associations; and consolidate society through altruism without obligation. It is this range of activities, services and associations produced by civil society that constitutes the sources of social capital.
If civil society, then is taken to be synonymous with third sector then the question it seems is not how important is social capital to the production of social capital? Not only have the authors above documented how civil society produces sources of social capital, but in Lyons work “Third sector” social capital does not appear in any guise under either the factors, that enable or those that stimulate the growth of the third sector, and onyx describes how social capital depends on an already functioning community. However, a truer definitions of civil society is different though not wholly distinct from the third sector. Lyons goes some way to addressing this by introducing a somewhat Marxist interpretation of civil society where civil society is “the space for free association, where people could meet and form groups to peruse their enthusiasm, express their values and assist others”. This is a “vibrant space, full of argument and disputation about matters of greatest importance to its citizens”. The idea that creating social capital (i.ee creating networks) will strengthen civil society underlies current Australian social policy aimed at bridging deepening social divisions. The goal is to reintegrate those marginalized from the rewards of the economic system; into the community. However, according to onyx (2000) while the explicit aim of this policy is inclusion, its effects are exclusionary.
The resurgence of interest in “Social capital” as a remedy for the cause of today’s social problems draws directly on the assumption that these problems lie in the weakening of civil society. However this ignores the social capital leads to exclusion rather than to a stronger civil society. In international development, Ben fine and John Harris have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of social capital as a supposed panacea in promoting civil society organizations, or as agents of development. An abundance of social capital is seen as being almost a necessary condition for modern liberal democracy. A low level of social capital leads to an excessively riding an unresponsive political system and high level corruption, in the political system and in the region as a whole.
Formal public institutions requires social capital in order to function properly, and while it is possible to have too much social capital (resulting in rapid changes and excessive regulation), it is decidedly worse to have too little.
A number of intellectuals in developing capital, particularly when connected to certain ideas about civil society, is deeply implicated in contemporary modes of donor and NGO driven imperialism and that it functions, primary, to blame the poor for their conditions.
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND THIRD WORLD
Many authors suggest that third world communities lack the social capital networks and associations found in Western developed communities; but taken an underestimation of social capital build in traditional societies.
CREATION OF SOCIAL CAPITAL:
Putnam (1993) argues that social capital in Italy is legacy of long periods of historical development, and therefore it cannot be added to in the short-run. Falk and Kilpatrick (1999) argue that the accumulation of social capital is the outcome of the process of learning interactions. Learning interactions require a learning event (an actual occasion) and occur in a contextual dimension (the broad, social-cultural and political frame work). A precondition to building social capital is the existence of a sufficient quantity and quality of learning interactions. For example Falk and Kilpatrick suggest that quality learning interactions includes an historical context, external interactions, reciprocity, trust shared norms and values. The planning and implementation of community projects may be one such learning interaction.
Uphaff (1999), distinguishes between structural and cognitive social capital. Structural social capital involves various forms of social organizations, including roles, rules, precedents, and procedures as well as a variety of networks that contribute to co-operation. Cognitive social capital includes norms, values, attitudes and beliefs. Structural and cognitive social capital are complimentary structures help to translate norms and beliefs into well co-coordinated behavior.
Other authors (sable, 1994) argues that social capital builds up as a result of all actors committing themselves to on-going negotiations based on shared understanding of common goals. Hecher (1987) suggest a multistage process for building group solidarity.
Having joined together members must devise rules and procedures, which get institutionalized over time.
BENEFITS OF SOCIAL CAPITAL:-
Provided by Narayan and Pritchett (1997) there are five concrete beneficial outcomes of social capital:-
(i) Improvement of society’s ability to monitor the performance of government.
(ii) Facilitate the diffusion of innovations by increasing inter-linkages among individuals.
(iii) Reduce information imperfections, and mechanisms, thereby increasing transactions in output, credit land and labor markets.
(iv) Increase informal insurance (or informal safety nets) between households, thereby allowing households to pursue higher returns, but more risky activities and production technique.
THE BAD SIDE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL:
It is also important to remember that social capital is not always a good thing. As groups gather together to create “bonding” social capital, it is possible for their beliefs to become more radical than if they just stayed to themselves. Without “bridging” social capital, “bounding” social capital can become isolated and disenfranchised from the rest of society. There are groups or social capital invested towards negative ends, for example gangs groups.
INTERVENTION TO IMPROVE OR TO STRENGTHEN SOCIAL CAPITAL
Oakley etal (1991) proposes the following six interactions:-
(i) Animation:- Assisting local people stimulate their owns critical awareness to examine and explain issues in their own words and realize what they can do to bring about change.
(ii) Structuring:- Development of international cohesion and solidarity among people, and some form of structured organization.
Facilitation:- A service role which assist people to undertake specific actions; these actions includes acquiring of particular technical and managerial skills, gaining access to available resources or translating their own ideas into feasible projects.
Intermediary:- To serve as a go-between in relation to other external services. To establish contacts with existing services and introduce people to the procedures and mechanisms for dealing with these services.
Linkage:- Helping the groups to develop links between people in similar contexts and facing similar problems.
Withdrawal:- A progressive redundancy of external interventions.
RATIONALE OR JUSTFICATION OF SOCIAL CAPITAL (GROUPS).
Participating in a group is costly for members in terms of time and labor, and resources. Mankner’s (1997) literature review of self-help groups finds, assessment of genuine local need for these groups in a common policy mistake.
Kabubila’s (1994) evaluation for GTZ village programme in two districts of Tanga region (Tanzania), state that many group approach would help them. some people argue that external agents should not create groups. One option is for the external agents to support only groups with a certain history. In practice, it may be difficult to support groups without at least indirectly creating them. however, a mere announcement that a donor will provide support to groups meeting certain criteria leads to the creation of these groups. The difference between support and creation (animated mobilization) may be that support programmes reach the well informed and connected i.e (the non-poor) whereas mobilization may be capable or reaching the marginalized and vulnerable. One motivation for village group formation in Tanzania today is the access this provides to donor support. Research in Tanzania has found that the very poorest and marginalized women are under-represented in women’s organizations. it can also be urged that the use of participatory methods does not guarantee the insulation of the vulnerable groups. Hume (2000) argues that the best practice will be; open and public meetings, regular electitions, financial training for leaders, the inclusion of women does not necessarily stop elites capture of local organizations or the creation of new elites. He argues that stockholder analysis is one way of exploring such issues. Social capital is both affected by and affects social power structures. The ability to create or destroy social capital will depend on how power structures and traditional worms of associations are engaged by filled staff of external agencies. Social and power structures also emerge externally. Groups created as implementers of community development may be perceived mainly as part of some external development agency’s system or project. And they are concerned with mining social capital using existing stocks of social capital to achieve other aims and in the process depleting the initial capital. In general, these is no one model for social capital formation or the creation or strengthening of local groups. Abee and Boyd (1997) argue that there is no single answer or model to promoting participation. But there are only frame works and guiding principles.
CONCLUSION
Social capital (Groups) can be significant tools in improving the well-being of the marginalized majority of communities, the authorities should encourage the formation of these groups from being internally or externally hijacked and exploited, by few elites who pretend be good wishers of these social capital (groups) while in reality they are carrying individualistic agenda. To ensure sustainability of social capital groups, the government and other big organizations.
Should empower, these groups through training and education to their members and leaders; on organizational, planning control and monitoring evaluation skills. Most of the social capital (groups), for example the cooperatives societies in Tanzania could not sustain and do any better to its members, because both, of the members and leaders of these cooperatives lacked preparnessed interms of training and education; more worse the formation was not demand-driven, rather, as suggestive economic development tool formulated by the government policy makers and imposed to the people. In a way some the social, groups were politically initiated to meet political motives. All these kind of social capital groups end-up in benefiting individuals and leave the majority still on the same poverty line.
The government should also institute very strict control and monitoring the formation of social capital (groups) to be able to scan those one which leads to negative impact to the vast majority of the society.
REFERENCE:
Internet (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia).
ADVOCACY Expert series, community mobilization manual, developed by pact Tanzania; first edition, October 2005.
The objective of this journal work is to provide the meaning behind the concept of “Social capital.” Logically the concept of social capital is currently receiving a lot of attention from development agencies and research institutions. Part of the attention has been on its definition.
This journal work will tries to put forward some of the definitions, provided by various thinkers, social scientists and researchers.
The journal will also covers the general frame work of social capital in terms of:-
- Types of social capital
- Measurement of social capital
- Social capital and civil society
- Social capital and third world
- Creation of social capital
- Benefits of social capital
- The bad side of social
- Intervention or dimensions to strengthen social capital.
- Conclusion based on knowledge learned and my own views and comments.
RANGE OF DEFINITIONS ON SOCIAL CAPITAL
The term social capital was first used in the 1980s by Bourdien and Coleman. While the themes above are consistently mentioned throught the literature on social capital there are many definitions of social capital.
Bourdien and Wacquant, 1992, definition:-
Social capital is the sum of the resources, actual or virtual, that accrue to an individual or a group by virtue of processing a durable net-work of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition.
Wendy stone and Jody Hughes July 2000 state social capital as:-
Simply as networks of social relations characterized by norms of trust and reciprocity. The essence of social capital is quality social relations. Thus social capital can be understood as a resource to collective action, which may lead to a broad range of outcomes of varying social scale.
World Bank (2000) what is social capital?:-
The institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society’s social interactions.
Narayan (1997) voices of the poor-poverty and social capital in Tanzania:-
Social capital are rules, norms, obligations, reciprocity and trust embedded in social relations, social structures and society institutional arrangements which enables members to achieve their individual and community objective.
NB:- Many definitions define what social capital is and what it does. In fact, there seems to be broader agreement in the literature about what social capital does, than what it is in general it is widely agreed that social capital facilitates mutually beneficial collective action.
TYPES OF SOCIAL CAPITAL:
Robert D. Putman, an American, Harvard political scientist, in this pioneering study, speaks of two main components of the concept:
- (i) Bounding social capital and
- (ii) Bridging social capital
Bounding refers to the value assigned to social networks between homogeneous groups of people. and – Bridging refers to that of social networks between socially heterogeneous groups. Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bounding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs create bridging social capital. For Tanzania situation one can site bonding social capital example being cooperatives e.g Agricultural marketing cooperatives, and an example for bridging social capital can be money bending institutions e.g PRIDE, SEDA etc. Bridging social capital is argued to have a host other benefits for societies governments, individuals, and communities Putnam noted that joining an organization cuts in half an individual’s chance of dying within the next year.
The distinction is useful in highlighting how social capital may not always be beneficial for society as a whole (Through it is always an asset for those individuals and groups involved). Horizontal networks of individual Citizens and groups that enhance community productivity and cohesion are said to be positive social capital assets whereas self-serving exclusive gangs and hierarchical patronage systems that operate at cross purposes to societal interests can be thought of as negative social capital burdens on society.
MEASUREMENT OF SOCIAL CAPITAL
There is no widely held consensus on how to measure social capital, which is on of its weakness. One can usually initiatively sense the level/amount of social capital present in a given relationship (Regardless of type or scale), but quantitatively.
Measuring has proven somewhat complicated. This has resulted in different metrics for different functions. In measuring political social capital, it is common to take the sum of society’s membership of its groups. Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with low membership (such as communities) still add up to be significant. The level of cohesion of a group also affects its social capital. However again, there is no true quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness. It is entirely subjective. How a group relates to the rest of society also affects social capital; but in different manner. Strong internal ties can in some cases weaken the group is geared towards crime; distrust, intolerance, violence or hatred forwards others. The ku klux klan and the Mafia are examples of these kinds of organizations.
CIVIL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL CAPITAL:
A number of authors give definitions of civil society that refers to voluntary associations and organizations is closely related to the definition of the “third sector”, which consists of “Private organizations that are formed and sustained by groups of people acting voluntarily and without seeking personal profit to provide benefits, for authors as Walzer, Alessandri, Newton and others, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the “third sector” that individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks. These voluntary associations also connect people with each other, build trust and reciprocity through informal, loosely structured associations; and consolidate society through altruism without obligation. It is this range of activities, services and associations produced by civil society that constitutes the sources of social capital.
If civil society, then is taken to be synonymous with third sector then the question it seems is not how important is social capital to the production of social capital? Not only have the authors above documented how civil society produces sources of social capital, but in Lyons work “Third sector” social capital does not appear in any guise under either the factors, that enable or those that stimulate the growth of the third sector, and onyx describes how social capital depends on an already functioning community. However, a truer definitions of civil society is different though not wholly distinct from the third sector. Lyons goes some way to addressing this by introducing a somewhat Marxist interpretation of civil society where civil society is “the space for free association, where people could meet and form groups to peruse their enthusiasm, express their values and assist others”. This is a “vibrant space, full of argument and disputation about matters of greatest importance to its citizens”. The idea that creating social capital (i.ee creating networks) will strengthen civil society underlies current Australian social policy aimed at bridging deepening social divisions. The goal is to reintegrate those marginalized from the rewards of the economic system; into the community. However, according to onyx (2000) while the explicit aim of this policy is inclusion, its effects are exclusionary.
The resurgence of interest in “Social capital” as a remedy for the cause of today’s social problems draws directly on the assumption that these problems lie in the weakening of civil society. However this ignores the social capital leads to exclusion rather than to a stronger civil society. In international development, Ben fine and John Harris have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of social capital as a supposed panacea in promoting civil society organizations, or as agents of development. An abundance of social capital is seen as being almost a necessary condition for modern liberal democracy. A low level of social capital leads to an excessively riding an unresponsive political system and high level corruption, in the political system and in the region as a whole.
Formal public institutions requires social capital in order to function properly, and while it is possible to have too much social capital (resulting in rapid changes and excessive regulation), it is decidedly worse to have too little.
A number of intellectuals in developing capital, particularly when connected to certain ideas about civil society, is deeply implicated in contemporary modes of donor and NGO driven imperialism and that it functions, primary, to blame the poor for their conditions.
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND THIRD WORLD
Many authors suggest that third world communities lack the social capital networks and associations found in Western developed communities; but taken an underestimation of social capital build in traditional societies.
CREATION OF SOCIAL CAPITAL:
Putnam (1993) argues that social capital in Italy is legacy of long periods of historical development, and therefore it cannot be added to in the short-run. Falk and Kilpatrick (1999) argue that the accumulation of social capital is the outcome of the process of learning interactions. Learning interactions require a learning event (an actual occasion) and occur in a contextual dimension (the broad, social-cultural and political frame work). A precondition to building social capital is the existence of a sufficient quantity and quality of learning interactions. For example Falk and Kilpatrick suggest that quality learning interactions includes an historical context, external interactions, reciprocity, trust shared norms and values. The planning and implementation of community projects may be one such learning interaction.
Uphaff (1999), distinguishes between structural and cognitive social capital. Structural social capital involves various forms of social organizations, including roles, rules, precedents, and procedures as well as a variety of networks that contribute to co-operation. Cognitive social capital includes norms, values, attitudes and beliefs. Structural and cognitive social capital are complimentary structures help to translate norms and beliefs into well co-coordinated behavior.
Other authors (sable, 1994) argues that social capital builds up as a result of all actors committing themselves to on-going negotiations based on shared understanding of common goals. Hecher (1987) suggest a multistage process for building group solidarity.
Having joined together members must devise rules and procedures, which get institutionalized over time.
BENEFITS OF SOCIAL CAPITAL:-
Provided by Narayan and Pritchett (1997) there are five concrete beneficial outcomes of social capital:-
(i) Improvement of society’s ability to monitor the performance of government.
(ii) Facilitate the diffusion of innovations by increasing inter-linkages among individuals.
(iii) Reduce information imperfections, and mechanisms, thereby increasing transactions in output, credit land and labor markets.
(iv) Increase informal insurance (or informal safety nets) between households, thereby allowing households to pursue higher returns, but more risky activities and production technique.
THE BAD SIDE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL:
It is also important to remember that social capital is not always a good thing. As groups gather together to create “bonding” social capital, it is possible for their beliefs to become more radical than if they just stayed to themselves. Without “bridging” social capital, “bounding” social capital can become isolated and disenfranchised from the rest of society. There are groups or social capital invested towards negative ends, for example gangs groups.
INTERVENTION TO IMPROVE OR TO STRENGTHEN SOCIAL CAPITAL
Oakley etal (1991) proposes the following six interactions:-
(i) Animation:- Assisting local people stimulate their owns critical awareness to examine and explain issues in their own words and realize what they can do to bring about change.
(ii) Structuring:- Development of international cohesion and solidarity among people, and some form of structured organization.
Facilitation:- A service role which assist people to undertake specific actions; these actions includes acquiring of particular technical and managerial skills, gaining access to available resources or translating their own ideas into feasible projects.
Intermediary:- To serve as a go-between in relation to other external services. To establish contacts with existing services and introduce people to the procedures and mechanisms for dealing with these services.
Linkage:- Helping the groups to develop links between people in similar contexts and facing similar problems.
Withdrawal:- A progressive redundancy of external interventions.
RATIONALE OR JUSTFICATION OF SOCIAL CAPITAL (GROUPS).
Participating in a group is costly for members in terms of time and labor, and resources. Mankner’s (1997) literature review of self-help groups finds, assessment of genuine local need for these groups in a common policy mistake.
Kabubila’s (1994) evaluation for GTZ village programme in two districts of Tanga region (Tanzania), state that many group approach would help them. some people argue that external agents should not create groups. One option is for the external agents to support only groups with a certain history. In practice, it may be difficult to support groups without at least indirectly creating them. however, a mere announcement that a donor will provide support to groups meeting certain criteria leads to the creation of these groups. The difference between support and creation (animated mobilization) may be that support programmes reach the well informed and connected i.e (the non-poor) whereas mobilization may be capable or reaching the marginalized and vulnerable. One motivation for village group formation in Tanzania today is the access this provides to donor support. Research in Tanzania has found that the very poorest and marginalized women are under-represented in women’s organizations. it can also be urged that the use of participatory methods does not guarantee the insulation of the vulnerable groups. Hume (2000) argues that the best practice will be; open and public meetings, regular electitions, financial training for leaders, the inclusion of women does not necessarily stop elites capture of local organizations or the creation of new elites. He argues that stockholder analysis is one way of exploring such issues. Social capital is both affected by and affects social power structures. The ability to create or destroy social capital will depend on how power structures and traditional worms of associations are engaged by filled staff of external agencies. Social and power structures also emerge externally. Groups created as implementers of community development may be perceived mainly as part of some external development agency’s system or project. And they are concerned with mining social capital using existing stocks of social capital to achieve other aims and in the process depleting the initial capital. In general, these is no one model for social capital formation or the creation or strengthening of local groups. Abee and Boyd (1997) argue that there is no single answer or model to promoting participation. But there are only frame works and guiding principles.
CONCLUSION
Social capital (Groups) can be significant tools in improving the well-being of the marginalized majority of communities, the authorities should encourage the formation of these groups from being internally or externally hijacked and exploited, by few elites who pretend be good wishers of these social capital (groups) while in reality they are carrying individualistic agenda. To ensure sustainability of social capital groups, the government and other big organizations.
Should empower, these groups through training and education to their members and leaders; on organizational, planning control and monitoring evaluation skills. Most of the social capital (groups), for example the cooperatives societies in Tanzania could not sustain and do any better to its members, because both, of the members and leaders of these cooperatives lacked preparnessed interms of training and education; more worse the formation was not demand-driven, rather, as suggestive economic development tool formulated by the government policy makers and imposed to the people. In a way some the social, groups were politically initiated to meet political motives. All these kind of social capital groups end-up in benefiting individuals and leave the majority still on the same poverty line.
The government should also institute very strict control and monitoring the formation of social capital (groups) to be able to scan those one which leads to negative impact to the vast majority of the society.
REFERENCE:
Internet (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia).
ADVOCACY Expert series, community mobilization manual, developed by pact Tanzania; first edition, October 2005.
Commmunity Needs Assessment For Ngaramtoni Village
INTRODUCTION
COMMUNITY NEEDS ASSISSEMENT
This project assignment on Community needs assessment for Ngaramtoni village is envisaged to involve the Ngaramtoni village Communities, which includes ordinary Citizens, village government leaders, NGOs and CBOs and business members of the Community and many other stake holders, residing inside or outside of Ngaramtoni village.
Each group or individuals mentioned above will be invited and involved in assessing various needs in terms of economic needs, environmental needs health needs as well as community assessment. The participants will also suggest relevant solutions to the needs or problems. Effectiveness in solving community needs can only be visible if the society in question is fully involved in problem or need identification, developing plans to solve the problem taking part in the implementation process and financially monitoring and evaluating results.
Many social development studies, for example O&OD PRA, has proved that better outcomes and impacts are more obvious when a community demand driven approach is applied.
This part of my project work will engage itself in participatory approach.
It should be noted that community based activities depend largely on the strength, talents, and motivation of the community members. Too often development efforts focus on the needs of a community, which puts people in a deficit frame of mind.
In order to encourage positive community images I have suggested using a community assets approach; along side of the needs approach this assignment will also identify and discuss the reliability and justification of the research methods, approach, and tools applied to carry out the Ngaramtoni community needs assessment.
Finally this part of the project work i.e community needs assessment), for Ngaramtoni village will provide results of participatory assessment.; using stress chart analysis. A part from the results, this PRA will also, come up with, the most ranked problem to be addressed during the entire period of this project work.
NGARAMTONI VILLAGE PROFILE
Ngaramtoni village is one of five villages in KIMUNYAK ward, Enaboishu division,Arusha District, Arusha Region, Tanzania. The village is located in the Western side of Mount Meru and is about 12KM out of Arusha city along the Nairobi road.
The village is divided into five sub-villages namely:-
(1) Yohannes sub-village
(2) Kaipuko sub-village
(3) Moilo sub-village
(4) Long’idu sub-village
To the large extend the village stood as a local township, which started longtime ago, estimated to be more than 100 years.
Throughout these years, the population of Ngaramtoni township community has been growing rapidly due to business opportunities, brought by abundant supply of farm produce due to favorable farming climate, influenced by the ecosystem of Mount Meru, and also because the village is located near Nairobi road and not very far from Nairobi the capital of Kenya.
More growth in population is expected in the near future as the township is expected to be up graded and attain a township status. According to MR. OLARIP MBARIO who is the village executive officer (VEO) and basing on the National census of 2002, Ngaramtoni village by then had 5,897 adults people and 1150 children who are under 10 years of age. The village is administrated and governed under the laws and regulations provided by the government through the Ministry of local government under the prime Ministers office. In addition, the village has also by laws, and regulations which were instituted and agreed upon by the village executive council and passed by the village general meeting.
The village also have four committees:
(1) The planning committee
(2) The village security and defense committee
(3) The village social and well-fare committee
(4) The Land committee
All the four committees functions and report back to the village executive council. The executive committee analyzes all the reports and put decisions before taking the issues to the village general meeting for approval. The village chairperson is the chief executive of the village and aided committee. He/She chairs all the executive committee meetings, together with the village general assembly meetings.
The village executive officer is the secretary in all the meetings of the executive committee, together with the village general assembly meeting. He undertakes day to day matters in the village, including minutes writing, keeping records, and from time to time informing the government about development issues, through the District development Director. The main economic activities of the Ngaramtoni residents has been mostly business as well as subsistence farming and livestock keeping.
METHODS AND APPROACH
The community needs assessment for Ngaramtoni village has been carried out, using qualitative approach as well non-experimental method.
The qualitative participatory approach is chosen as the best option in this study, because it involves active participation, and the knowledge gained in the process can be easily translated to the community. Also the non-experimental research method has been chosen to carry out this study, because of the nature of the study, whereby the situation is highly uncontrollable.
RESEARCH TOOLS CHOSEN AND JUSTIFICATION
For the purpose of carrying out participatory need assessment for Ngaramtoni village; the following research tools has been identified:-
(i) Focus group discussion
(ii) Problem tree
(iii) Documents
(iv) Observation
(v) Interviewing
Focus group discussion:
Group discussion were organized at different times with similar types of participants to identify trends. Mental as well as health needs in the Ngaramtoni village. NB Answers for the group were representing a consensus or different opinions, not facts or specific data.
Documents
Past and present literatures as well as, official current or previous investigations reports are consulted, information’s or data obtained were supplemented with other questionnaires as one should not entirely rely on documentary information’s.
Observations
In the strict sense, observation implies the use of the eyes rather than of the ears and the voice. But in the researcher, takes trouble to get involved in the community, observing in the strict sense what is happening and supplement this by conversation, interviews and other information’s obtained using other research tools. In different occasions and in different areas observations has been carried out in Ngaramtoni village, and adequate information has been gathered.
NB. Direct, observation has a number of advantages compared to other methods. One major advantage is the accuracy of information. But despite of this major advantage ; has merit one big is its limitations for example, is when a researcher is interested in events or activity that belongs to the past; in this case, the researcher has to rely on documents, or on what people tells him.
Interviewing:-
A survey interview is a conservation between interviewer is a conservation between interviewer and respondent with purpose of obtaining certain information’s from the respondent. Interviewers has been contacted with different people in the Ngaramtoni village community, among the interviewed people are the village Government leaders, traditional leaders, Church leaders, extension workers and ordinary citizens; through the interviews varying information’s has been gathered concerning varying social economy, environmental as well as health needs in the Ngaramtoni village community.
For a successfully interviewing exercise three factors were of pre-requisite:
(i) Accessibility:- i.e if the respondent does not have the required information can not answer the questions.
(ii) Cognition:- The respondent initial willingness to cooperate and his/her subsequent decision to continue the interview. But more than that includes he/her motivation to give accurate answers; NB distorted answers are no better than no answers at all.
Problem tree:-
A problem tree was used in summarizing the Ngaramtoni village community needs assessment discussion. Problems were identified, as well as causes and effects; and arranged in a tree format.
The causes are the roots, , the problems are the trunks and the effects are the leaves of the tree. The problem, but the causes are not clearly visible. The exercise was also used to summarize and analyze solutions.
RESULTS OUT OF THE PARTICIPATORY ASSEMENT
COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT
1.1 VOLUNTEERISM:
The group of government leaders, Church leaders, traditional leaders and some of the ordinary citizens, who have been interview on whether volunteerism is increasing or declining; most of them said that volunteerism is declining. More decline in volunteerism is pronounced in the Ngaramtoni township area where business activities are taking place, and the residents are people coming from neighboring rural village of Olevolos, Kimunyak, Sambasha, Ilkiding’a, Olturument and even from other far villages like , like Kisongo Oldonyosambu and so on; these people comes and settle in Ngaramtoni township to do business, another category of residents are employed members of the society In most cases business people and employed civil servants fails to turn up for communal activities. They said that volunteerism is much more better in Ngaramtoni sub-villages where most of its people are engaged in agricultural activities.
1.2 DECISION MAKING PROCESS
When varying groups are interviewed, women groups, youth groups business people, extension workers, Church leaders and government leaders, they all confirm in most cases decision making is done democratically, and every person is allowed to participate and contribute views and ideas.
Participation in the process on decision making is evidenced by specific committees; for specific community needs. For example in Ngaramtoni Village there are four committees:
(i) The planning committee
(ii) The village security and defense committee
(iii) The village social and welfare committee
(iv) The land committee
All the four committee functions and report back the village executive council. The executive committee analyses all reports and take to the village general assembly/meeting for final approval.
1.3 LOCAL LEADERSHIP
Interviews were done through ordinary people in the village, extension workers, Church leaders, business people as well traditional leaders, asked about the quality or leadership capacity in Ngaramtoni village, and most of them are optimistic of leadership capacity, saying that most of the village leaders are standard VII level education, and very few has ordinary level Secondary education, they suggested that educated and knowledgeable leaders at village level are pre-requisite for positive economic development in the rural community.
1.4 COMMUNITY SAFETY: -
when parents are interviewed upon the security and safety of their young children; they commented that no incidents of bad acts to their children, though, in rare occasions there are reported cases of young children knocked by wreck less bicycle riders on the problem of drugs abuse alcoholism and in morality most of the people interviewed raised their concern over the growing habits of many unemployed youth engaging themselves in drugs abuse and alcoholism. They continued that if this problem is not checked, the Ngaramtoni village will turn to be the center of gangs and ultimately insecure for economic activities.
1.5 POVERTY MEASURES:-
Varying people interviewed including government leaders, Church leaders said there are government efforts to alleviate poverty, such measures include the provision of finance to organized community groups “Tajirika na Kikwete”, One billion Tshs. Extended to each region in the Country. NGOs and CBOs also provides for example SEDA, PRIDE (Tanzania), compassion international do provide loans to initiate developmental projects. The majority of young people who had no formal employment, when interviewed, they still feel that nothing is being done by the government to support them get out of poverty.
1.6 COMMUNITY NEEDS:-
A cross section of the Ngaramtoni village community has been approached and interviewed or asked to point out basic needs which are unfulfilled or completely lacking in Ngaramtoni village:- the majority of the people interviewed ranked the of water as the most pressing need, whereby, they complain that, family members especially and sometimes school children spent a lot of hour during the day searching for water, from few water points. The hours spend to look for water could have been spent in economic actictivities and contribute in poverty alleviation. Those who could not have time to go around to fetch water at a distance water point, are forced to buy twenty liters of water at 500 Tshs. The other basic need which rank second has been sited as lack of secondary school. The Ngaramtoni village people and other neighboring village (about 10 villages) rely on one Secondary school which is neither well equipped nor has enough classrooms, and teachers, to absorb a tremendous huge number of primary school children who every year qualify for Secondary education. This problem forced a good number of youth to be pushed in the community with no formal employment neither skills to enable them to engage in formal employment.
The third pressing community need for Ngaramtoni village society was sited to be inadequate health and medical services. The village depends on only one government dispensary taking consideration of the huge population of about 5,897 adults people and 1150 children basing on 2002 National census. The dispensary is also serving other more than 5 neighboring villages people interviewed said that, though there are three medical and health services offered by those private dispensaries ,but the majority of the villagers with low income can not afford the cost of medical and health services offered by private dispensaries.
1.7 COST OF LIVING:-
Varying views were given on the Cost of living. Most of the ordinary
villagers with no formal employment or business, , but depends on petty business of selling farm produce or subsistence rural farming has highly Complain that, Cost of living is very high and un favorable to them due ever increasing prices of basic Commodities for example sugar, cooking oil, soap, clothing shoes and even house rents; they blamed the government of not taking measures to control inflation. A marginal part of the Ngaramtoni population, though they blame on ever escalating inflation, but they don’t seems to feel much of the problem compared to the majority of low-income class. This minority are few Civil servant , and business people who runs Medium and big businesses.
1.8 CULTURAL ISSUES:-
When elders, and traditional leaders are visited and interviewed
regarding the present cultural aspects in the Ngaramtoni village community, both admitted and commented that cultural issues or practice, not all but same are fading out. They sited an example of female circumcision and said that most of the community members especially educated and religious families are no longer entertaining female circumcision. Elders and traditional leaders, commented on respect based on age is no longer enforced, and in a way contributed to immorality acts .Youth have varying views, though the majority of the youth seems to honor cultural aspects, but few disregard cultural aspects and, are driven by western value.
1.9 EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES:-
All community groups visited and interviewed has raised their concern about the poor state of educational facilities which are available in the area. Teachers students parents NGO’S and CBO’S representatives were interviewed and everyone narrated the poor of educational facilities in the area. They said one government secondary school with very few classrooms, few qualified teachers no laboratory and a library cannot cater for a big number of primary children who qualify every year for secondary education. Apart from having only one secondary school, there is no vocational training College or medium professional colleges. This situation led to have an ever increasing number of un employed youth in the area.
1.10 PENDING PLANS AND PROPOSALS:-
In principle the village government leadership when interviewed, do have pending plans and proposals geared towards solving some of the community needs. Some of the plans, being to improve educational facilities and water shortage problem. The villagers are motivated to contribute money to construct more classrooms in the secondary school and in some of the primary schools in the area. There are also plans to build a health center and improve the existing water system. The community respond to these initiatives as per some of the local government leaders interviewed is not impressing due to mistrust the community members have on local.
Government leadership as well as some of the NGO’S and CBO’S who are entrusted to handle the money for the projects, but at the end of the day the money is mismanaged embezzled, and zero benefit is delivered to the community.
1.11 COMMUNITY STRESS CHART
S/N
Community stress
Source of stress
Community assets
1.
Lack of volunteerism
· Declining cultural aspects – (Communal spirit)
· Economic stress people have no spare time to turn up to communal work.
· Human capital (labor)
· Social capital
· Local government by laws regulations.
2.
Lack of security
· Un controlled in immigration
· Rapid population growth towards market centers
· Illegal fire arms, guns.
· Poverty (due to unequal
· Police posts
· Night patrol (sungu-sungu)
· Community policing
· Public education
3.
Water shortage
· Unprotected catchments area
· Rapid population increase
· Lack of routine maintenance of the existing water system
* Rain water
* Protection of catchments
water sources areas.
*Public education on participatory environment at conservation (NGOs & CBOs)
4.
Lack of educational facilities.
· Rapid population increase
· Lack of volunteerism
· Lack of motivation to the teachers .
· Corrupt leaders
*Family planning education & awareness.
*Locally available construction material e.g stones, and murram.
*Human capital e.g carpenters, welders and plumbers.
5.
Lack of health facilities
*Lack of medical and health infrastructure
*Lack of medical personnel
*High cost of medical services
*Government policy
*Volunteerism
*Education on general health and Hygiene through NGOs and government.
6.
Inadequate Housing
*High cost of construction materials.
*Rapid population growth
No long-term housing plans.
*Human capacity
*Availability of stones & sand
Education on better housing.
7.
Decline in cultural values and practice.
*Western values and practices view as better than traditional values especially by the young generation.
*Government policies e.g female circumcision
*Tribal interaction neutralizes common cultures and values e.g tribal inter-manages.
*Presence of elders
*Government emphasis and support to uphold good traditional practices
8.
Lack of artistic and cultural practices
*Emphasis on Western arts e.g Bongo Beats
*Lack of support and motivation extending financial support.
*Education and advocacy of traditional arts and practices by elders and government
*Availability of local materials.
9.
Pending plans and proposals
*Delayed implementation.
*Lack of transparency and mismanagement
*Lack of volunteerism & motivation
*Lack of donors
*Availability of human labor
*Availability of social capital
*Institution of punishment for misguided leaders who embezzled projects founds.
2. ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
2.1 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES:-
In assessing for economic activities in Ngaramtoni village; observation and interviews are conducted to a cress-section of the population. These being ordinary people, women and men, youth and elders. Business people were also visited as well as local government leaders interviewed.
Through observation survey done; the survey identified a varying range of business as well as economic activities.
Businesses identified are:-
-Tailoring commodity shops, restaurants, carpentry, garages, saw-mills, butchers, stationeries and internet cafes, hardware’s, pharmacy shops, transportation vehicles (daladalas and lorries). During market days i.e Thursday and Sundays a big number of villagers gets into Ngaramtoni market place and sell food produce ranging from fruits and vegetables, grains and even livestock.
When interviewed on the performance and prospects of their businesses, each category comes up with their own views.
The carpentry category complains of increase in the prices of timber, this lead them to get less orders and hence less income.
The tailoring category commented on second hand clothes (Mitumba) they are getting less orders for new clothes as majority of the population goes for cheaper second hand clothes.
Sawmills, flour mills and garages owners, complains of frequent power cuts as well increase in price in power consumption commodity shop owners restaurant bars and Daladala owner are not directly affected by power cuts and increase in power consumption bills, but they express indirect economic stress brought by inflation of basic needs.
2.2 HOUSING:
Investigation is carried through focus group discussion (People renting houses) and land lords (house owners). Both groups reveal that inflation and rise in living standards as well increased demand on houses, led to increase in house rents/charges
2.3 MICROFINANCE:
Investigation carried out through focus groups (women groups & youth groups) as well individual interviewing, some micro financing institutions and NGOs are providing financial services to the group and individuals in Ngaramtoni Village. These financial institutions includes; Pride Tanzania, SEDA, SACCOS, Akiba Commercial Bank, NMB and CRDB.
However they revealed that they encountered problems in repayment due to high interest rates charged by most of the financial institutions except the SACCOS
2.4 INVESTMENT
Interviews the majority of the respondents admitted free investment in the Ngaramtoni village, with no ethnic discrimination. There is a multiethnic grouping in Ngaramtoni township an indication of free trade. Though the majority of investors are small and medium enterprises (SME), no Industries or factories.
2.5 EMPLOYMENT
This investigation is carried using questioners, and finding shows that most of the people are employed by the private sector and earn a wage less than the living wage per day, estimated to be 1 USD or Tshs. 1,200. These employees are mostly barmaids, shop attendants, house girls and casual laborers. A part from receiving the minimum wage also they have no statutory benefits. For few civil servants interviewed for example teachers and extension workers, the findings reveal that they are moderately receiving wages above minimum wages from Tsdhs. 80,000 and above. It was also evidenced that most of trained personnel do receive reasonable wages. Employment prospect in Ngaramtoni village is good, because the township is expanding and attracting more and potential investors.
2.6 BUSINESS ACTIVITIES:
This investigation is carried by interviewing of a cross section of people in Ngaramtoni business community. Many of them admitted that their businesses are challenged by poor social infrastructure, for example frequent power cuts, , insufficient water supply and absence of financial institution office’s in the area. In most cases they had to go to Arusha city for money transaction; as well as buying supplies for sell.
2.7 BUSINESS SKILLS
As interviewing being the most suitable tool here, a cross-section of business men and women were interviewed and most of respondents, openly declare that they have no any formal business training, rather they said that they opted to engage in business, because they do not have college or professional education which will offer them formal employment.
2.8 INFORMAL BUSINESSES
In this area observation, interviews and survey tools, are both used to identify and distinguish formal and informal businesses in Ngaramtoni village. It is found that 85% of the community businesses are informal .Here informal implies they do not have formalized licenses from the office of the district trade officer. The remaining 15% has formal businesses, which are formally licensed. In this case, the informal sector play a greater role to the Ngaramtoni ,community the informal sector contributes in the following ways:-
- Provide informal unemployment to the majority of community members.
- Create social stability
- Acts as entry point to formal business
- Leads to economic growth
- Creates stable market prices
- Provide market to local producers
- Improve quality of goods and services through competition
2.9 INFRASTRUCTURE:
Assessment in this area has been easily done using observation and interviews tools. The findings establish that infrastructure in Ngaramtoni village is generally poor for example there are paved road which, are less accessible during rainy season.. Social services like schools, colleges, hospitals and dispensary are quite inadequate most of the respondents commented on the needs to improve social services and infrastructure to match ever increasing population.
2.10 ECONOMIC STRESS CHART
NS/NO.
ECONOMIC STRESS
SOURCE OF STRESS
COMMUNITY ASSETS
1.
Poor performance of some of the business e.g tailoring and carpentry
*Cheap second hand clothes (Mitumba)
*Rapid increase in timber prices
*Imported ready made clothes.
*Seasonal needs of new clothing e.g Christmas.
*Reforestation to increase supply of timber
2.
Less affordable housing
*Increase in population
*High cost of construction materials
*High housing rents.
*Sourcing of a alternative cheap building materials
*Training more carpenters and manpower, this will bring labor charges low
3.
People earning minimum wages
*Low level of training
*Lack of jobs opportunities
*Lack of active labor unions
*Low level of investments.
*Prospect of big investments
*Enforcing government laws and regulation on labor and wages.
4.
Lack of macro enterprise investors
*Lack of entrepreneurship skills
*Poor infrastructure
*Inadequate local market
*Prospects and pending plans to improve infrastructure.
*Population increase will lead to demand growth.
*Availability of land for investment e.g tourism hotels.
5.
Lack of public services
*Few primary schools as well as secondary schools
*Inadequate water supply
*Lack of volunteerism
*Lack of responsible leadership.
*NGO and CBOs are supporting construction of class rooms
*Social capital through community mobilization; to volunteer and contributor resources
*Government intervention to scan irresponsible leaders.
6.
Lack of business skills
*No business colleges in the area
*NGOs and CBOs are volunteering to offer business skills
*Social groupings offer opportunity to share entrepreneurship skills.
3. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
3.1 CONDITIONS OF LOCAL NATURAL RESOURCES:-
This assessment task is an condition of local natural resources in Ngaramtoni village had been conducted using observation and interviews. The investigation revealed that, no natural forest exist, because the respondents and observations could not see any natural forest around the area.
Some of the interviewed residents explain that much of the natural trees had been cut down for different purposes for example fire wood and for construction of houses and furnitures. Observations show that there are natural water sources around the area; springs and rivers; but threatened by people settlement near the water sources, as well as farming and livestock keeping
3.2 CONDITIONS OF THE LOCAL ECO-SYSTEM SERVICES
Cross-section interviews carried among varying groups; suggest that there non local eco-system services in place, as there is no harsh environmental disasters in area. In some instance crops pests are noticed, but pest sides are readily available to cub the problem. The soil is naturally fertile and if depleted, the use of organic fertilizers takes place.
3.3 NATURAL RESOURCES/ECO-SYSTEM SERVICES USED FASTER THAN REPLENISHMENT?
Most of the interviewed that natural resources like natural trees, water, land are being used faster than replenishment, due to rapid increase in population. Natural resources are static while the population and their demands continue to shoo up day after day
.
3.4 PROBLEMS
3.5 OF POLUTION
In order to establish whether there are problems of pollution, i visited and surveyed several areas in Ngaramtonias well as interviewing
various groups of people. In many places which i visited the problem of
pollution is enormous. In the market place there is a huge pile of garbage both solid waste and organic west mixed together, and one can feel the smell of rotting organic waste for-example left-overs, cabbages, potatoes and other organic waste. A part from the pile of garbage in the market place, also garbage can be seen scattered all over the places, near butchers, restaurants, residential houses, shops, saw mills, flour mills, garages, along side and inside river Ngaramtoni when one walk to any corner of Ngaramtoni township, waste solid and non-solid, is rampantly scattered all over. A part from garbage pollution; dirty water, from residential and business houses flows along the paths of Ngaramtoni. The survey also revealed that garages, saw mills, flour mills, vehicles and big trucks are other sources of pollution.
3.5 PROPER MANAGEMENT OF WASTE:
When I visited the Ngaramtoni village executive officer MR. OLARIP MBARIO in his office and interviewed him whether there are pending plans to cub the problem of waste in Ngaramtoni village; he said that, there are no sustainable plans in place right now except that they employed three personnel just to go around sweeping, cleaning; and gathering garbage in one chosen area near market place, that has been the sources of health problems e.g cholera and also bad smell.
3.6 DEPENDANCY OF LOCAL ECONOMY ON NATURAL RESOURCES AND SYSTEM
Many people who are interviewed, ranging from business people local leaders and ordinary citizens admitted that natural, resources for example catchments forest, planted forest water sources (rivers and springs) fertile soil, are very much significant for the economic prosperity of the local people in Ngaramtoni village.
3.7 LONG TERM PLANS FOR LOCAL NATURAL RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEM
Focus groups interviewed including NGOs, CBOs, extension workers and local government officials said that efforts are being taken by NGOs, CBOs and government to protect the natural resources sustain ably , through awareness raising, environmental education in schools, local environmental committees, re-forestation, protection of water sources etc.
3.8 DEPLETED NATURAL RESOURCES WHICH WERE ONCE IN USE TO CREATE
JOBS BUT NO LONGER IN PLACE
The interviews done through focus groups reveal that, natural resources which were there in the past, can still be found, though not to the same degree or status, as most of the natural resources are diminishing, leading to less benefits or jobs.
3.9
POSSIBILITY OF REPLENISHING / RESTORING NATURAL RESOURCES
Many interviewed people suggest that efforts should be done to restore diminishing natural resources. For example the re forestation campaigns, protection of springs and water sources, soil fertility restoration and so on.
3.10 DEPLETED NATURAL RESOURCES
People interviewed, sited indigenous species of trees, and plants, which were used in the past as local herbal medicine can no longer be found in the area, due to unsustainable practices.
3.11 DEPLETED ECOSYSTEM
Ordinary local citizens approached and interviewed mentioned that some springs which were active in the past are no longer providing water due to unsustainable practices of the local people for example grazing livestock near the springs, as well as farming.
Interventions
by NGOs CBOs and government seems to restore the spoiled ecosystem.
3.12 FUTURE PROSPECT OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEM TO THE
COMING GENERATION:
The coming generation (our children) are most likely to witness in the future disappearance of Natural resources as well as ecosystem services, due to unsustainable practices of the present generation. They will find no natural species of trees and plants for herbal medicine, and hard wood and they will miss the natural springs and rivers.
3.13 ECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES WHICH ARE ASSENTIAL TO BUSINESS
When a focus group of business people interviewed they suggested and commented, football, pool table, basket ball and even jogging as essential recreation activities to their businesses, as part of refreshment after day long work.
3.14ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT STRESS CHART
S/NO.
Environmental stress
Causes of stress
Community assets
1.
Lack of natural resources
*Unsustainable practices
*Rapid usage due to population increase
*Environmental conservation awareness
*Human manpower to restore the natural resources e.g planting indigenous trees.
*NGOs and CBCOs raising awareness for sustainable practices.
2.
Diminishing eco-system services eg water from rivers and springs and soil fertility
*Unsustainable practices
*Rapid usage due to population growth.
*Environmental conservation awareness.
*Government policy to protect eco-system
*NGOs and CBOs raising awareness for conservation of eco-system
3.
Rapid depletion of natural resources and eco-system
*Rapid increase in population.
*Lack of environmental conservation awareness.
*Government policy and laws to protect natural resource and ecosystem
*NGOs and CBOs raising awareness on Environmental conservation
4.
Pollution problems
*Lack of sustainable plans to control or manage pollution
Population growth and their activities
*Lack of Environment conservation education awareness.
*Human capacity and manpower
*NGO and CBOs ready to intervene and provide both awareness and resources
5.
Economy failures due to lack of natural resources and eco-system
*Lack and adequate water
* Lack of sustainainable plans to control or manage pollution.
*Population.
*Population growth and their activities
*Lack of Environment conservation education awareness
*Human manpower to protect catchments areas
*NGOs and CBOs raising awareness
6.
Lack of long-term plans to serve local natural resources and ecosystem
*Human capacity able to develop and implement the plans.
NGOs CBOs and other holders are ready to cooperate with the local leaders and the community to develop sustainable plans.
7.
Loss of jobs due to depletion of natural resources
*Rapid population growth
*Lack of sustainable conservation of natural resources.
*Lack of awareness on sustainable environmental conservation
*Intervention of NGOs and CBO empowering local authority to develop sustainable natural resources conservation plans
*Government by laws through local authorities to protect natural resources.
8.
Lack of recreational activities essential to businesses
*No reserved sites recreation.
*Government willing to provide
*People will participate to develop
4. HEALTH NEED ASSESSMENT
4.1 HEALTH FACILITIES AVAILABLE IN NGARAMTONI VILLAGE
When the focus group local government leaders, are interviewed to establish the health facilities available in Ngaramtoni village, they said that; Ngaramtoni village has only one government dispensary, one private hospital (Selian Hospital), also said that in Ngaramtoni township area there are 10 pharmacy shops.
4.2 HEALTH SERVICES AVAILABLE IN THE AREA
A visit has been made to some of the dispensaries to establish, kind of health services offered/provided by the dispensaries and Hospitals. The nurses and Doctors said that the most prevalence services are Malaria, pneumonia, water born diseases, HIV/AIDS, cancer and TB cases.
4.3 DISTANCE TO WHICH THE RE-FERAL HOSPITAL IS LOCATED (SELIAN)
The referral hospital which is Selian and sometimes Mt. Meru Hospital are easily accessible. The Selian Hospital is more closer to the Ngaramtoni community about 5Kms. Mt. Meru hospital is about 15KM from Ngaramtoni community, but public transport is easily available (daladala buses).
4.4 AVAILABILITY OF TRANSPORT TO REACH THE HEALTH FACILITIES
People interview admitted that accessibility of transport to access the health facilities is easily available all the time; daladala buses and taxis services are readily available; as well as affordable.
4.5 THE NURSE / PATIENT RATIO AT THE HEALTH FACILITIES
The visit has been made to Kimnyak ward dispensary which is the government dispensary and spoke to the nurse in charge asking her is the rate of patient with regards to the number of nurses and doctors in the dispensary. The nurse said that the dispensary is served by only 3 nurses and one rural medical aids assistant. Basing on their records, an average of 350 patients visit the dispensary for different health problems. This given an average of 88 patients per nurse per day . For the private dispensary their records shows that they have 6 nurses one medical assistant doctor and one dentist. In terms of patients visiting the dispensary (CRC Dispensary) in a day, records shows that they receive an average of 250 patients. This makes an average of 42 patient per nurse per day and average of 250 patients per one doctor per day and 250 patients with dental problems per one dentist.
4.6 FREE HEALTH SERVICES OR PAYABLE
When a cross section of people asked if they pay for medical services the respond is yes, much more in private dispensaries and hospitals. In the government or hospital, interviewed people said, the cost sharing system is applicable, where they pay less compared to private dispensaries or hospital.
4.7 MAJOR HEALTH SERVICES PROVIDER
The survey done, reveal that the major health service provider is the private sector, whereby, there are 3 private dispensaries in the area, and one private hospital (Selian) in relation to only one government dispensary, available in the area.
4.8 RAPID POPULATION INCREASE IN RELATION TO INCREASE HEALT SERVICES
Many people interviewed confirm that there is booming population in Ngaramtoni village, but the health services improvement or increase has been static for a longtime.
4.9 WHETHER THERE ARE WELL TRAINED NURSES AND DOCTORS, WORKING
IN THE HEALTH FACILITIES:
As per interviews conducted with the heads of the facilities they said that, the nurses and doctors are moderately trained, but they have plans to up-grade the skills through, on the job training and short courses.
4.10 PENDING PLANS OR PROPOSALS TO INCREASE HEALTH FACILITIES OR ENHANCE HEALTH SERVICES
Through the visit to the village, government office; MR.OLARIP MBARIO, the village executive officer was interviewed and he said that the government is planning to construct a health center in the area as well as one government hospitals.
HEALTH STRESS CHART
S/NO.
Health stress in Ngaramtoni village
Causes of stress
Community assets
1.
Few health facilities and services in the area.
*Lack of government effort to invest in health facilities.
*Lack of volunteerism to contribute resources to build more health facilities in the area.
*Pending government plans and proposals; to build more health facilities.
*Private sector so the needs and potential due to rapid population growth
*people wiliness to contribute resources if they are well organized.
2.
Low nurses/doctors patient ratio
Lack of qualified and trained nurses
*Lack of motivation to train in medical, profession due to low wages.
*Few medical training colleges.
*Government pending plans to train more
*Medical personal
*More private medical training colleges are emerging
*More people are now starting to be interested due to high demand and attractive packages especially in the private health facilities.
3.
High cost of health services
*Low income (poverty)
*Economic aspects of inflation
*Low government subsidies
*People willingness to work very hard ro raise their incomes to be able to meet high health services and other basic needs.
4.
Long distance to the referral Hospital
*Only one re-feral Hospital is available in the area.
*Government pending plans to build a health facility to cater for re-feral cases in the area.
*People willing and motivated to contribute if they are well organized and mobilized.
*Private sector attracted to build more health facilities to cater for referral cases, because of high demand due to rapid population growth.
AREA OF FOCUS AND THE PROBLEM TO BE ADDRESSED
From the needs assessment conducted during my attachment with the Ngaramtoni village community, the majority of the community were on the consensus that, short and long-term plans are needed to reduce and ultimately stops, the problem of random disposal of solid waste (Inorganic waste) In Ngaramtoni village. Apart from other types of waste, solid waste has been ranked to be the leading environmental pollutant in the area. Currently the village authority and the central government and even NGOs and CBOs non has pending plans to deal with the problem. This project work intends to come up with participatory interventions to the problem, involving all stakeholders in the community, to develop a strategic plan to be implemented by the community members and evaluated by the community members themselves with the assistant of other stakeholders.
This problem was identified through a consultative process, problem tree, focus group discussion; facilitated by Elias O. Ngungat a CED student, Mr. John Ole Daniel, the Co-coordinator of an NGO called Osotwa Mount Meru community based conversation organization, religions leaders, traditional leaders and MR. OLARIP MBARIO the Ngaramtoni Village Executive Officer.
ANNEX 1 GROUP OF INTERVIWED
NO OF INTERVIEWED PERSONS
COMMUNITY GROUP REPRESENTED
MALE/
FEMALE
AREA/LOCATION
4
RELIGIOUS GROUP
M
KILIMO SUB-VILLAGE
MAKAO MAPYA
2
SAW MILL FACTORIES
M
NEAR CENTRAL MARKET
1
BUSINESS MAN
M
BUTCHER AREA NEAR CENTRAL AREA
3
YOUTH SHOE REPAIR & SHOE SHINNERS
M
ALONG THE MAIN ROAD (OLD ROAD) TO OLMOTONYI
1
HAND CRART RIDER YOUTH
M
NGARAMTONI SUB VILLAGE OLORIEN
3
BAR MAIDS
F
KIVULINI BAR
3
“MAMA LISHE”
F
NGARAMTONI CENTRAL MARKETS
2
WHOLESALE SHOPS
M
NGARAMTONI BUS STAND
3
FRUITS & VEGETABLES SELLERS
F
NEAR CENTRAL MARKETS
2
TAILORS
F
ALONG THE MAIN ROAD
4
YOUTH WELDING UNITS AND BATTERY CHARGERS
M
NEAR NAIROBI JUNCTION ROAD
1
TRADITIONAL LEADER
M
DANIEL OLE MEOYEKI
2
HOUSE WIFES
F
KWA MKOLAA AREA
1
MANAGER
M
ARUSHA SEED COMPANY
1
POLITICIAN
M
ALONG SELIAN ROAD
3
LOCAL GOVERNMENT LEADERS FOR NGARAMTONI VILLAGE
M
NEAR THE CENTRAL MARKET
2
NURSES
F
ENGOKIDONG’OI AREA KIMUNYAK VILLAGE
1
ASSISTANT MEDICAL OFFICER
M
CRC DISPENSARY ALONG OLD ROAD
2
NGOs & CBOs STAFF
M
EMAOI AREA AND ALONG OLMOTONYI OLD ROAD
1
TRADITIONAL HEALER (HERBALIST)
M
ALONG SELIAN ROAD
1
LAWYER
M
ALONG NGARAMTONI ROAD
2
SUBSTENCE FARMERS
M
OLEVOLOS
CONCLUSION
Future expectations predict further growth and development of the Ngaramtoni community, which increases social economic needs and pressures. Existing stress will worsen if no sustainable plans are developed to overcome the stresses.
Good and sufficient plans to tackle these stresses will not come about by its own. Most exemplary solutions have come into being as the result of a deliberate interventions on the part of one or more stakeholders in the problems. That is those who have an interest in seeing something happen.
Involving local community actors in needs identification, planning and implementation has in most cases bared good results.
Community participation in problems solving has the following benefits:-
- It creates community vision and sense of ownership.
- It empower community to identify and prioritize key issues, and speed up moral to solve pressing problems.
- It increase chances of success.
- It encourages local experience and innovation in solving the problems.
- It encourages locally available resources to be used to address the problem.
- In most cases, the intervention begins with an assessment planning process, so that the authorities and other stakeholders understand the current situation, agree on common priorities, formulate strategic plans, define the implementation process, take part in the implementation monitoring, and evaluation process.
REFERENCES
1. Maria Muller, Lane Hoffman, community partnership in integrated sustainable waste expertise programme.
2. C.A Moser, G. Kalton; Survey Methods in social investigation (1979) Published by Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. Printed in GB (The chaser Press) Ltd.
3. Internet WWW.lib.az.us/cdt/commneeds.htm Community needs Assessment
COMMUNITY NEEDS ASSISSEMENT
This project assignment on Community needs assessment for Ngaramtoni village is envisaged to involve the Ngaramtoni village Communities, which includes ordinary Citizens, village government leaders, NGOs and CBOs and business members of the Community and many other stake holders, residing inside or outside of Ngaramtoni village.
Each group or individuals mentioned above will be invited and involved in assessing various needs in terms of economic needs, environmental needs health needs as well as community assessment. The participants will also suggest relevant solutions to the needs or problems. Effectiveness in solving community needs can only be visible if the society in question is fully involved in problem or need identification, developing plans to solve the problem taking part in the implementation process and financially monitoring and evaluating results.
Many social development studies, for example O&OD PRA, has proved that better outcomes and impacts are more obvious when a community demand driven approach is applied.
This part of my project work will engage itself in participatory approach.
It should be noted that community based activities depend largely on the strength, talents, and motivation of the community members. Too often development efforts focus on the needs of a community, which puts people in a deficit frame of mind.
In order to encourage positive community images I have suggested using a community assets approach; along side of the needs approach this assignment will also identify and discuss the reliability and justification of the research methods, approach, and tools applied to carry out the Ngaramtoni community needs assessment.
Finally this part of the project work i.e community needs assessment), for Ngaramtoni village will provide results of participatory assessment.; using stress chart analysis. A part from the results, this PRA will also, come up with, the most ranked problem to be addressed during the entire period of this project work.
NGARAMTONI VILLAGE PROFILE
Ngaramtoni village is one of five villages in KIMUNYAK ward, Enaboishu division,Arusha District, Arusha Region, Tanzania. The village is located in the Western side of Mount Meru and is about 12KM out of Arusha city along the Nairobi road.
The village is divided into five sub-villages namely:-
(1) Yohannes sub-village
(2) Kaipuko sub-village
(3) Moilo sub-village
(4) Long’idu sub-village
To the large extend the village stood as a local township, which started longtime ago, estimated to be more than 100 years.
Throughout these years, the population of Ngaramtoni township community has been growing rapidly due to business opportunities, brought by abundant supply of farm produce due to favorable farming climate, influenced by the ecosystem of Mount Meru, and also because the village is located near Nairobi road and not very far from Nairobi the capital of Kenya.
More growth in population is expected in the near future as the township is expected to be up graded and attain a township status. According to MR. OLARIP MBARIO who is the village executive officer (VEO) and basing on the National census of 2002, Ngaramtoni village by then had 5,897 adults people and 1150 children who are under 10 years of age. The village is administrated and governed under the laws and regulations provided by the government through the Ministry of local government under the prime Ministers office. In addition, the village has also by laws, and regulations which were instituted and agreed upon by the village executive council and passed by the village general meeting.
The village also have four committees:
(1) The planning committee
(2) The village security and defense committee
(3) The village social and well-fare committee
(4) The Land committee
All the four committees functions and report back to the village executive council. The executive committee analyzes all the reports and put decisions before taking the issues to the village general meeting for approval. The village chairperson is the chief executive of the village and aided committee. He/She chairs all the executive committee meetings, together with the village general assembly meetings.
The village executive officer is the secretary in all the meetings of the executive committee, together with the village general assembly meeting. He undertakes day to day matters in the village, including minutes writing, keeping records, and from time to time informing the government about development issues, through the District development Director. The main economic activities of the Ngaramtoni residents has been mostly business as well as subsistence farming and livestock keeping.
METHODS AND APPROACH
The community needs assessment for Ngaramtoni village has been carried out, using qualitative approach as well non-experimental method.
The qualitative participatory approach is chosen as the best option in this study, because it involves active participation, and the knowledge gained in the process can be easily translated to the community. Also the non-experimental research method has been chosen to carry out this study, because of the nature of the study, whereby the situation is highly uncontrollable.
RESEARCH TOOLS CHOSEN AND JUSTIFICATION
For the purpose of carrying out participatory need assessment for Ngaramtoni village; the following research tools has been identified:-
(i) Focus group discussion
(ii) Problem tree
(iii) Documents
(iv) Observation
(v) Interviewing
Focus group discussion:
Group discussion were organized at different times with similar types of participants to identify trends. Mental as well as health needs in the Ngaramtoni village. NB Answers for the group were representing a consensus or different opinions, not facts or specific data.
Documents
Past and present literatures as well as, official current or previous investigations reports are consulted, information’s or data obtained were supplemented with other questionnaires as one should not entirely rely on documentary information’s.
Observations
In the strict sense, observation implies the use of the eyes rather than of the ears and the voice. But in the researcher, takes trouble to get involved in the community, observing in the strict sense what is happening and supplement this by conversation, interviews and other information’s obtained using other research tools. In different occasions and in different areas observations has been carried out in Ngaramtoni village, and adequate information has been gathered.
NB. Direct, observation has a number of advantages compared to other methods. One major advantage is the accuracy of information. But despite of this major advantage ; has merit one big is its limitations for example, is when a researcher is interested in events or activity that belongs to the past; in this case, the researcher has to rely on documents, or on what people tells him.
Interviewing:-
A survey interview is a conservation between interviewer is a conservation between interviewer and respondent with purpose of obtaining certain information’s from the respondent. Interviewers has been contacted with different people in the Ngaramtoni village community, among the interviewed people are the village Government leaders, traditional leaders, Church leaders, extension workers and ordinary citizens; through the interviews varying information’s has been gathered concerning varying social economy, environmental as well as health needs in the Ngaramtoni village community.
For a successfully interviewing exercise three factors were of pre-requisite:
(i) Accessibility:- i.e if the respondent does not have the required information can not answer the questions.
(ii) Cognition:- The respondent initial willingness to cooperate and his/her subsequent decision to continue the interview. But more than that includes he/her motivation to give accurate answers; NB distorted answers are no better than no answers at all.
Problem tree:-
A problem tree was used in summarizing the Ngaramtoni village community needs assessment discussion. Problems were identified, as well as causes and effects; and arranged in a tree format.
The causes are the roots, , the problems are the trunks and the effects are the leaves of the tree. The problem, but the causes are not clearly visible. The exercise was also used to summarize and analyze solutions.
RESULTS OUT OF THE PARTICIPATORY ASSEMENT
COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT
1.1 VOLUNTEERISM:
The group of government leaders, Church leaders, traditional leaders and some of the ordinary citizens, who have been interview on whether volunteerism is increasing or declining; most of them said that volunteerism is declining. More decline in volunteerism is pronounced in the Ngaramtoni township area where business activities are taking place, and the residents are people coming from neighboring rural village of Olevolos, Kimunyak, Sambasha, Ilkiding’a, Olturument and even from other far villages like , like Kisongo Oldonyosambu and so on; these people comes and settle in Ngaramtoni township to do business, another category of residents are employed members of the society In most cases business people and employed civil servants fails to turn up for communal activities. They said that volunteerism is much more better in Ngaramtoni sub-villages where most of its people are engaged in agricultural activities.
1.2 DECISION MAKING PROCESS
When varying groups are interviewed, women groups, youth groups business people, extension workers, Church leaders and government leaders, they all confirm in most cases decision making is done democratically, and every person is allowed to participate and contribute views and ideas.
Participation in the process on decision making is evidenced by specific committees; for specific community needs. For example in Ngaramtoni Village there are four committees:
(i) The planning committee
(ii) The village security and defense committee
(iii) The village social and welfare committee
(iv) The land committee
All the four committee functions and report back the village executive council. The executive committee analyses all reports and take to the village general assembly/meeting for final approval.
1.3 LOCAL LEADERSHIP
Interviews were done through ordinary people in the village, extension workers, Church leaders, business people as well traditional leaders, asked about the quality or leadership capacity in Ngaramtoni village, and most of them are optimistic of leadership capacity, saying that most of the village leaders are standard VII level education, and very few has ordinary level Secondary education, they suggested that educated and knowledgeable leaders at village level are pre-requisite for positive economic development in the rural community.
1.4 COMMUNITY SAFETY: -
when parents are interviewed upon the security and safety of their young children; they commented that no incidents of bad acts to their children, though, in rare occasions there are reported cases of young children knocked by wreck less bicycle riders on the problem of drugs abuse alcoholism and in morality most of the people interviewed raised their concern over the growing habits of many unemployed youth engaging themselves in drugs abuse and alcoholism. They continued that if this problem is not checked, the Ngaramtoni village will turn to be the center of gangs and ultimately insecure for economic activities.
1.5 POVERTY MEASURES:-
Varying people interviewed including government leaders, Church leaders said there are government efforts to alleviate poverty, such measures include the provision of finance to organized community groups “Tajirika na Kikwete”, One billion Tshs. Extended to each region in the Country. NGOs and CBOs also provides for example SEDA, PRIDE (Tanzania), compassion international do provide loans to initiate developmental projects. The majority of young people who had no formal employment, when interviewed, they still feel that nothing is being done by the government to support them get out of poverty.
1.6 COMMUNITY NEEDS:-
A cross section of the Ngaramtoni village community has been approached and interviewed or asked to point out basic needs which are unfulfilled or completely lacking in Ngaramtoni village:- the majority of the people interviewed ranked the of water as the most pressing need, whereby, they complain that, family members especially and sometimes school children spent a lot of hour during the day searching for water, from few water points. The hours spend to look for water could have been spent in economic actictivities and contribute in poverty alleviation. Those who could not have time to go around to fetch water at a distance water point, are forced to buy twenty liters of water at 500 Tshs. The other basic need which rank second has been sited as lack of secondary school. The Ngaramtoni village people and other neighboring village (about 10 villages) rely on one Secondary school which is neither well equipped nor has enough classrooms, and teachers, to absorb a tremendous huge number of primary school children who every year qualify for Secondary education. This problem forced a good number of youth to be pushed in the community with no formal employment neither skills to enable them to engage in formal employment.
The third pressing community need for Ngaramtoni village society was sited to be inadequate health and medical services. The village depends on only one government dispensary taking consideration of the huge population of about 5,897 adults people and 1150 children basing on 2002 National census. The dispensary is also serving other more than 5 neighboring villages people interviewed said that, though there are three medical and health services offered by those private dispensaries ,but the majority of the villagers with low income can not afford the cost of medical and health services offered by private dispensaries.
1.7 COST OF LIVING:-
Varying views were given on the Cost of living. Most of the ordinary
villagers with no formal employment or business, , but depends on petty business of selling farm produce or subsistence rural farming has highly Complain that, Cost of living is very high and un favorable to them due ever increasing prices of basic Commodities for example sugar, cooking oil, soap, clothing shoes and even house rents; they blamed the government of not taking measures to control inflation. A marginal part of the Ngaramtoni population, though they blame on ever escalating inflation, but they don’t seems to feel much of the problem compared to the majority of low-income class. This minority are few Civil servant , and business people who runs Medium and big businesses.
1.8 CULTURAL ISSUES:-
When elders, and traditional leaders are visited and interviewed
regarding the present cultural aspects in the Ngaramtoni village community, both admitted and commented that cultural issues or practice, not all but same are fading out. They sited an example of female circumcision and said that most of the community members especially educated and religious families are no longer entertaining female circumcision. Elders and traditional leaders, commented on respect based on age is no longer enforced, and in a way contributed to immorality acts .Youth have varying views, though the majority of the youth seems to honor cultural aspects, but few disregard cultural aspects and, are driven by western value.
1.9 EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES:-
All community groups visited and interviewed has raised their concern about the poor state of educational facilities which are available in the area. Teachers students parents NGO’S and CBO’S representatives were interviewed and everyone narrated the poor of educational facilities in the area. They said one government secondary school with very few classrooms, few qualified teachers no laboratory and a library cannot cater for a big number of primary children who qualify every year for secondary education. Apart from having only one secondary school, there is no vocational training College or medium professional colleges. This situation led to have an ever increasing number of un employed youth in the area.
1.10 PENDING PLANS AND PROPOSALS:-
In principle the village government leadership when interviewed, do have pending plans and proposals geared towards solving some of the community needs. Some of the plans, being to improve educational facilities and water shortage problem. The villagers are motivated to contribute money to construct more classrooms in the secondary school and in some of the primary schools in the area. There are also plans to build a health center and improve the existing water system. The community respond to these initiatives as per some of the local government leaders interviewed is not impressing due to mistrust the community members have on local.
Government leadership as well as some of the NGO’S and CBO’S who are entrusted to handle the money for the projects, but at the end of the day the money is mismanaged embezzled, and zero benefit is delivered to the community.
1.11 COMMUNITY STRESS CHART
S/N
Community stress
Source of stress
Community assets
1.
Lack of volunteerism
· Declining cultural aspects – (Communal spirit)
· Economic stress people have no spare time to turn up to communal work.
· Human capital (labor)
· Social capital
· Local government by laws regulations.
2.
Lack of security
· Un controlled in immigration
· Rapid population growth towards market centers
· Illegal fire arms, guns.
· Poverty (due to unequal
· Police posts
· Night patrol (sungu-sungu)
· Community policing
· Public education
3.
Water shortage
· Unprotected catchments area
· Rapid population increase
· Lack of routine maintenance of the existing water system
* Rain water
* Protection of catchments
water sources areas.
*Public education on participatory environment at conservation (NGOs & CBOs)
4.
Lack of educational facilities.
· Rapid population increase
· Lack of volunteerism
· Lack of motivation to the teachers .
· Corrupt leaders
*Family planning education & awareness.
*Locally available construction material e.g stones, and murram.
*Human capital e.g carpenters, welders and plumbers.
5.
Lack of health facilities
*Lack of medical and health infrastructure
*Lack of medical personnel
*High cost of medical services
*Government policy
*Volunteerism
*Education on general health and Hygiene through NGOs and government.
6.
Inadequate Housing
*High cost of construction materials.
*Rapid population growth
No long-term housing plans.
*Human capacity
*Availability of stones & sand
Education on better housing.
7.
Decline in cultural values and practice.
*Western values and practices view as better than traditional values especially by the young generation.
*Government policies e.g female circumcision
*Tribal interaction neutralizes common cultures and values e.g tribal inter-manages.
*Presence of elders
*Government emphasis and support to uphold good traditional practices
8.
Lack of artistic and cultural practices
*Emphasis on Western arts e.g Bongo Beats
*Lack of support and motivation extending financial support.
*Education and advocacy of traditional arts and practices by elders and government
*Availability of local materials.
9.
Pending plans and proposals
*Delayed implementation.
*Lack of transparency and mismanagement
*Lack of volunteerism & motivation
*Lack of donors
*Availability of human labor
*Availability of social capital
*Institution of punishment for misguided leaders who embezzled projects founds.
2. ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
2.1 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES:-
In assessing for economic activities in Ngaramtoni village; observation and interviews are conducted to a cress-section of the population. These being ordinary people, women and men, youth and elders. Business people were also visited as well as local government leaders interviewed.
Through observation survey done; the survey identified a varying range of business as well as economic activities.
Businesses identified are:-
-Tailoring commodity shops, restaurants, carpentry, garages, saw-mills, butchers, stationeries and internet cafes, hardware’s, pharmacy shops, transportation vehicles (daladalas and lorries). During market days i.e Thursday and Sundays a big number of villagers gets into Ngaramtoni market place and sell food produce ranging from fruits and vegetables, grains and even livestock.
When interviewed on the performance and prospects of their businesses, each category comes up with their own views.
The carpentry category complains of increase in the prices of timber, this lead them to get less orders and hence less income.
The tailoring category commented on second hand clothes (Mitumba) they are getting less orders for new clothes as majority of the population goes for cheaper second hand clothes.
Sawmills, flour mills and garages owners, complains of frequent power cuts as well increase in price in power consumption commodity shop owners restaurant bars and Daladala owner are not directly affected by power cuts and increase in power consumption bills, but they express indirect economic stress brought by inflation of basic needs.
2.2 HOUSING:
Investigation is carried through focus group discussion (People renting houses) and land lords (house owners). Both groups reveal that inflation and rise in living standards as well increased demand on houses, led to increase in house rents/charges
2.3 MICROFINANCE:
Investigation carried out through focus groups (women groups & youth groups) as well individual interviewing, some micro financing institutions and NGOs are providing financial services to the group and individuals in Ngaramtoni Village. These financial institutions includes; Pride Tanzania, SEDA, SACCOS, Akiba Commercial Bank, NMB and CRDB.
However they revealed that they encountered problems in repayment due to high interest rates charged by most of the financial institutions except the SACCOS
2.4 INVESTMENT
Interviews the majority of the respondents admitted free investment in the Ngaramtoni village, with no ethnic discrimination. There is a multiethnic grouping in Ngaramtoni township an indication of free trade. Though the majority of investors are small and medium enterprises (SME), no Industries or factories.
2.5 EMPLOYMENT
This investigation is carried using questioners, and finding shows that most of the people are employed by the private sector and earn a wage less than the living wage per day, estimated to be 1 USD or Tshs. 1,200. These employees are mostly barmaids, shop attendants, house girls and casual laborers. A part from receiving the minimum wage also they have no statutory benefits. For few civil servants interviewed for example teachers and extension workers, the findings reveal that they are moderately receiving wages above minimum wages from Tsdhs. 80,000 and above. It was also evidenced that most of trained personnel do receive reasonable wages. Employment prospect in Ngaramtoni village is good, because the township is expanding and attracting more and potential investors.
2.6 BUSINESS ACTIVITIES:
This investigation is carried by interviewing of a cross section of people in Ngaramtoni business community. Many of them admitted that their businesses are challenged by poor social infrastructure, for example frequent power cuts, , insufficient water supply and absence of financial institution office’s in the area. In most cases they had to go to Arusha city for money transaction; as well as buying supplies for sell.
2.7 BUSINESS SKILLS
As interviewing being the most suitable tool here, a cross-section of business men and women were interviewed and most of respondents, openly declare that they have no any formal business training, rather they said that they opted to engage in business, because they do not have college or professional education which will offer them formal employment.
2.8 INFORMAL BUSINESSES
In this area observation, interviews and survey tools, are both used to identify and distinguish formal and informal businesses in Ngaramtoni village. It is found that 85% of the community businesses are informal .Here informal implies they do not have formalized licenses from the office of the district trade officer. The remaining 15% has formal businesses, which are formally licensed. In this case, the informal sector play a greater role to the Ngaramtoni ,community the informal sector contributes in the following ways:-
- Provide informal unemployment to the majority of community members.
- Create social stability
- Acts as entry point to formal business
- Leads to economic growth
- Creates stable market prices
- Provide market to local producers
- Improve quality of goods and services through competition
2.9 INFRASTRUCTURE:
Assessment in this area has been easily done using observation and interviews tools. The findings establish that infrastructure in Ngaramtoni village is generally poor for example there are paved road which, are less accessible during rainy season.. Social services like schools, colleges, hospitals and dispensary are quite inadequate most of the respondents commented on the needs to improve social services and infrastructure to match ever increasing population.
2.10 ECONOMIC STRESS CHART
NS/NO.
ECONOMIC STRESS
SOURCE OF STRESS
COMMUNITY ASSETS
1.
Poor performance of some of the business e.g tailoring and carpentry
*Cheap second hand clothes (Mitumba)
*Rapid increase in timber prices
*Imported ready made clothes.
*Seasonal needs of new clothing e.g Christmas.
*Reforestation to increase supply of timber
2.
Less affordable housing
*Increase in population
*High cost of construction materials
*High housing rents.
*Sourcing of a alternative cheap building materials
*Training more carpenters and manpower, this will bring labor charges low
3.
People earning minimum wages
*Low level of training
*Lack of jobs opportunities
*Lack of active labor unions
*Low level of investments.
*Prospect of big investments
*Enforcing government laws and regulation on labor and wages.
4.
Lack of macro enterprise investors
*Lack of entrepreneurship skills
*Poor infrastructure
*Inadequate local market
*Prospects and pending plans to improve infrastructure.
*Population increase will lead to demand growth.
*Availability of land for investment e.g tourism hotels.
5.
Lack of public services
*Few primary schools as well as secondary schools
*Inadequate water supply
*Lack of volunteerism
*Lack of responsible leadership.
*NGO and CBOs are supporting construction of class rooms
*Social capital through community mobilization; to volunteer and contributor resources
*Government intervention to scan irresponsible leaders.
6.
Lack of business skills
*No business colleges in the area
*NGOs and CBOs are volunteering to offer business skills
*Social groupings offer opportunity to share entrepreneurship skills.
3. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
3.1 CONDITIONS OF LOCAL NATURAL RESOURCES:-
This assessment task is an condition of local natural resources in Ngaramtoni village had been conducted using observation and interviews. The investigation revealed that, no natural forest exist, because the respondents and observations could not see any natural forest around the area.
Some of the interviewed residents explain that much of the natural trees had been cut down for different purposes for example fire wood and for construction of houses and furnitures. Observations show that there are natural water sources around the area; springs and rivers; but threatened by people settlement near the water sources, as well as farming and livestock keeping
3.2 CONDITIONS OF THE LOCAL ECO-SYSTEM SERVICES
Cross-section interviews carried among varying groups; suggest that there non local eco-system services in place, as there is no harsh environmental disasters in area. In some instance crops pests are noticed, but pest sides are readily available to cub the problem. The soil is naturally fertile and if depleted, the use of organic fertilizers takes place.
3.3 NATURAL RESOURCES/ECO-SYSTEM SERVICES USED FASTER THAN REPLENISHMENT?
Most of the interviewed that natural resources like natural trees, water, land are being used faster than replenishment, due to rapid increase in population. Natural resources are static while the population and their demands continue to shoo up day after day
.
3.4 PROBLEMS
3.5 OF POLUTION
In order to establish whether there are problems of pollution, i visited and surveyed several areas in Ngaramtonias well as interviewing
various groups of people. In many places which i visited the problem of
pollution is enormous. In the market place there is a huge pile of garbage both solid waste and organic west mixed together, and one can feel the smell of rotting organic waste for-example left-overs, cabbages, potatoes and other organic waste. A part from the pile of garbage in the market place, also garbage can be seen scattered all over the places, near butchers, restaurants, residential houses, shops, saw mills, flour mills, garages, along side and inside river Ngaramtoni when one walk to any corner of Ngaramtoni township, waste solid and non-solid, is rampantly scattered all over. A part from garbage pollution; dirty water, from residential and business houses flows along the paths of Ngaramtoni. The survey also revealed that garages, saw mills, flour mills, vehicles and big trucks are other sources of pollution.
3.5 PROPER MANAGEMENT OF WASTE:
When I visited the Ngaramtoni village executive officer MR. OLARIP MBARIO in his office and interviewed him whether there are pending plans to cub the problem of waste in Ngaramtoni village; he said that, there are no sustainable plans in place right now except that they employed three personnel just to go around sweeping, cleaning; and gathering garbage in one chosen area near market place, that has been the sources of health problems e.g cholera and also bad smell.
3.6 DEPENDANCY OF LOCAL ECONOMY ON NATURAL RESOURCES AND SYSTEM
Many people who are interviewed, ranging from business people local leaders and ordinary citizens admitted that natural, resources for example catchments forest, planted forest water sources (rivers and springs) fertile soil, are very much significant for the economic prosperity of the local people in Ngaramtoni village.
3.7 LONG TERM PLANS FOR LOCAL NATURAL RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEM
Focus groups interviewed including NGOs, CBOs, extension workers and local government officials said that efforts are being taken by NGOs, CBOs and government to protect the natural resources sustain ably , through awareness raising, environmental education in schools, local environmental committees, re-forestation, protection of water sources etc.
3.8 DEPLETED NATURAL RESOURCES WHICH WERE ONCE IN USE TO CREATE
JOBS BUT NO LONGER IN PLACE
The interviews done through focus groups reveal that, natural resources which were there in the past, can still be found, though not to the same degree or status, as most of the natural resources are diminishing, leading to less benefits or jobs.
3.9
POSSIBILITY OF REPLENISHING / RESTORING NATURAL RESOURCES
Many interviewed people suggest that efforts should be done to restore diminishing natural resources. For example the re forestation campaigns, protection of springs and water sources, soil fertility restoration and so on.
3.10 DEPLETED NATURAL RESOURCES
People interviewed, sited indigenous species of trees, and plants, which were used in the past as local herbal medicine can no longer be found in the area, due to unsustainable practices.
3.11 DEPLETED ECOSYSTEM
Ordinary local citizens approached and interviewed mentioned that some springs which were active in the past are no longer providing water due to unsustainable practices of the local people for example grazing livestock near the springs, as well as farming.
Interventions
by NGOs CBOs and government seems to restore the spoiled ecosystem.
3.12 FUTURE PROSPECT OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEM TO THE
COMING GENERATION:
The coming generation (our children) are most likely to witness in the future disappearance of Natural resources as well as ecosystem services, due to unsustainable practices of the present generation. They will find no natural species of trees and plants for herbal medicine, and hard wood and they will miss the natural springs and rivers.
3.13 ECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES WHICH ARE ASSENTIAL TO BUSINESS
When a focus group of business people interviewed they suggested and commented, football, pool table, basket ball and even jogging as essential recreation activities to their businesses, as part of refreshment after day long work.
3.14ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT STRESS CHART
S/NO.
Environmental stress
Causes of stress
Community assets
1.
Lack of natural resources
*Unsustainable practices
*Rapid usage due to population increase
*Environmental conservation awareness
*Human manpower to restore the natural resources e.g planting indigenous trees.
*NGOs and CBCOs raising awareness for sustainable practices.
2.
Diminishing eco-system services eg water from rivers and springs and soil fertility
*Unsustainable practices
*Rapid usage due to population growth.
*Environmental conservation awareness.
*Government policy to protect eco-system
*NGOs and CBOs raising awareness for conservation of eco-system
3.
Rapid depletion of natural resources and eco-system
*Rapid increase in population.
*Lack of environmental conservation awareness.
*Government policy and laws to protect natural resource and ecosystem
*NGOs and CBOs raising awareness on Environmental conservation
4.
Pollution problems
*Lack of sustainable plans to control or manage pollution
Population growth and their activities
*Lack of Environment conservation education awareness.
*Human capacity and manpower
*NGO and CBOs ready to intervene and provide both awareness and resources
5.
Economy failures due to lack of natural resources and eco-system
*Lack and adequate water
* Lack of sustainainable plans to control or manage pollution.
*Population.
*Population growth and their activities
*Lack of Environment conservation education awareness
*Human manpower to protect catchments areas
*NGOs and CBOs raising awareness
6.
Lack of long-term plans to serve local natural resources and ecosystem
*Human capacity able to develop and implement the plans.
NGOs CBOs and other holders are ready to cooperate with the local leaders and the community to develop sustainable plans.
7.
Loss of jobs due to depletion of natural resources
*Rapid population growth
*Lack of sustainable conservation of natural resources.
*Lack of awareness on sustainable environmental conservation
*Intervention of NGOs and CBO empowering local authority to develop sustainable natural resources conservation plans
*Government by laws through local authorities to protect natural resources.
8.
Lack of recreational activities essential to businesses
*No reserved sites recreation.
*Government willing to provide
*People will participate to develop
4. HEALTH NEED ASSESSMENT
4.1 HEALTH FACILITIES AVAILABLE IN NGARAMTONI VILLAGE
When the focus group local government leaders, are interviewed to establish the health facilities available in Ngaramtoni village, they said that; Ngaramtoni village has only one government dispensary, one private hospital (Selian Hospital), also said that in Ngaramtoni township area there are 10 pharmacy shops.
4.2 HEALTH SERVICES AVAILABLE IN THE AREA
A visit has been made to some of the dispensaries to establish, kind of health services offered/provided by the dispensaries and Hospitals. The nurses and Doctors said that the most prevalence services are Malaria, pneumonia, water born diseases, HIV/AIDS, cancer and TB cases.
4.3 DISTANCE TO WHICH THE RE-FERAL HOSPITAL IS LOCATED (SELIAN)
The referral hospital which is Selian and sometimes Mt. Meru Hospital are easily accessible. The Selian Hospital is more closer to the Ngaramtoni community about 5Kms. Mt. Meru hospital is about 15KM from Ngaramtoni community, but public transport is easily available (daladala buses).
4.4 AVAILABILITY OF TRANSPORT TO REACH THE HEALTH FACILITIES
People interview admitted that accessibility of transport to access the health facilities is easily available all the time; daladala buses and taxis services are readily available; as well as affordable.
4.5 THE NURSE / PATIENT RATIO AT THE HEALTH FACILITIES
The visit has been made to Kimnyak ward dispensary which is the government dispensary and spoke to the nurse in charge asking her is the rate of patient with regards to the number of nurses and doctors in the dispensary. The nurse said that the dispensary is served by only 3 nurses and one rural medical aids assistant. Basing on their records, an average of 350 patients visit the dispensary for different health problems. This given an average of 88 patients per nurse per day . For the private dispensary their records shows that they have 6 nurses one medical assistant doctor and one dentist. In terms of patients visiting the dispensary (CRC Dispensary) in a day, records shows that they receive an average of 250 patients. This makes an average of 42 patient per nurse per day and average of 250 patients per one doctor per day and 250 patients with dental problems per one dentist.
4.6 FREE HEALTH SERVICES OR PAYABLE
When a cross section of people asked if they pay for medical services the respond is yes, much more in private dispensaries and hospitals. In the government or hospital, interviewed people said, the cost sharing system is applicable, where they pay less compared to private dispensaries or hospital.
4.7 MAJOR HEALTH SERVICES PROVIDER
The survey done, reveal that the major health service provider is the private sector, whereby, there are 3 private dispensaries in the area, and one private hospital (Selian) in relation to only one government dispensary, available in the area.
4.8 RAPID POPULATION INCREASE IN RELATION TO INCREASE HEALT SERVICES
Many people interviewed confirm that there is booming population in Ngaramtoni village, but the health services improvement or increase has been static for a longtime.
4.9 WHETHER THERE ARE WELL TRAINED NURSES AND DOCTORS, WORKING
IN THE HEALTH FACILITIES:
As per interviews conducted with the heads of the facilities they said that, the nurses and doctors are moderately trained, but they have plans to up-grade the skills through, on the job training and short courses.
4.10 PENDING PLANS OR PROPOSALS TO INCREASE HEALTH FACILITIES OR ENHANCE HEALTH SERVICES
Through the visit to the village, government office; MR.OLARIP MBARIO, the village executive officer was interviewed and he said that the government is planning to construct a health center in the area as well as one government hospitals.
HEALTH STRESS CHART
S/NO.
Health stress in Ngaramtoni village
Causes of stress
Community assets
1.
Few health facilities and services in the area.
*Lack of government effort to invest in health facilities.
*Lack of volunteerism to contribute resources to build more health facilities in the area.
*Pending government plans and proposals; to build more health facilities.
*Private sector so the needs and potential due to rapid population growth
*people wiliness to contribute resources if they are well organized.
2.
Low nurses/doctors patient ratio
Lack of qualified and trained nurses
*Lack of motivation to train in medical, profession due to low wages.
*Few medical training colleges.
*Government pending plans to train more
*Medical personal
*More private medical training colleges are emerging
*More people are now starting to be interested due to high demand and attractive packages especially in the private health facilities.
3.
High cost of health services
*Low income (poverty)
*Economic aspects of inflation
*Low government subsidies
*People willingness to work very hard ro raise their incomes to be able to meet high health services and other basic needs.
4.
Long distance to the referral Hospital
*Only one re-feral Hospital is available in the area.
*Government pending plans to build a health facility to cater for re-feral cases in the area.
*People willing and motivated to contribute if they are well organized and mobilized.
*Private sector attracted to build more health facilities to cater for referral cases, because of high demand due to rapid population growth.
AREA OF FOCUS AND THE PROBLEM TO BE ADDRESSED
From the needs assessment conducted during my attachment with the Ngaramtoni village community, the majority of the community were on the consensus that, short and long-term plans are needed to reduce and ultimately stops, the problem of random disposal of solid waste (Inorganic waste) In Ngaramtoni village. Apart from other types of waste, solid waste has been ranked to be the leading environmental pollutant in the area. Currently the village authority and the central government and even NGOs and CBOs non has pending plans to deal with the problem. This project work intends to come up with participatory interventions to the problem, involving all stakeholders in the community, to develop a strategic plan to be implemented by the community members and evaluated by the community members themselves with the assistant of other stakeholders.
This problem was identified through a consultative process, problem tree, focus group discussion; facilitated by Elias O. Ngungat a CED student, Mr. John Ole Daniel, the Co-coordinator of an NGO called Osotwa Mount Meru community based conversation organization, religions leaders, traditional leaders and MR. OLARIP MBARIO the Ngaramtoni Village Executive Officer.
ANNEX 1 GROUP OF INTERVIWED
NO OF INTERVIEWED PERSONS
COMMUNITY GROUP REPRESENTED
MALE/
FEMALE
AREA/LOCATION
4
RELIGIOUS GROUP
M
KILIMO SUB-VILLAGE
MAKAO MAPYA
2
SAW MILL FACTORIES
M
NEAR CENTRAL MARKET
1
BUSINESS MAN
M
BUTCHER AREA NEAR CENTRAL AREA
3
YOUTH SHOE REPAIR & SHOE SHINNERS
M
ALONG THE MAIN ROAD (OLD ROAD) TO OLMOTONYI
1
HAND CRART RIDER YOUTH
M
NGARAMTONI SUB VILLAGE OLORIEN
3
BAR MAIDS
F
KIVULINI BAR
3
“MAMA LISHE”
F
NGARAMTONI CENTRAL MARKETS
2
WHOLESALE SHOPS
M
NGARAMTONI BUS STAND
3
FRUITS & VEGETABLES SELLERS
F
NEAR CENTRAL MARKETS
2
TAILORS
F
ALONG THE MAIN ROAD
4
YOUTH WELDING UNITS AND BATTERY CHARGERS
M
NEAR NAIROBI JUNCTION ROAD
1
TRADITIONAL LEADER
M
DANIEL OLE MEOYEKI
2
HOUSE WIFES
F
KWA MKOLAA AREA
1
MANAGER
M
ARUSHA SEED COMPANY
1
POLITICIAN
M
ALONG SELIAN ROAD
3
LOCAL GOVERNMENT LEADERS FOR NGARAMTONI VILLAGE
M
NEAR THE CENTRAL MARKET
2
NURSES
F
ENGOKIDONG’OI AREA KIMUNYAK VILLAGE
1
ASSISTANT MEDICAL OFFICER
M
CRC DISPENSARY ALONG OLD ROAD
2
NGOs & CBOs STAFF
M
EMAOI AREA AND ALONG OLMOTONYI OLD ROAD
1
TRADITIONAL HEALER (HERBALIST)
M
ALONG SELIAN ROAD
1
LAWYER
M
ALONG NGARAMTONI ROAD
2
SUBSTENCE FARMERS
M
OLEVOLOS
CONCLUSION
Future expectations predict further growth and development of the Ngaramtoni community, which increases social economic needs and pressures. Existing stress will worsen if no sustainable plans are developed to overcome the stresses.
Good and sufficient plans to tackle these stresses will not come about by its own. Most exemplary solutions have come into being as the result of a deliberate interventions on the part of one or more stakeholders in the problems. That is those who have an interest in seeing something happen.
Involving local community actors in needs identification, planning and implementation has in most cases bared good results.
Community participation in problems solving has the following benefits:-
- It creates community vision and sense of ownership.
- It empower community to identify and prioritize key issues, and speed up moral to solve pressing problems.
- It increase chances of success.
- It encourages local experience and innovation in solving the problems.
- It encourages locally available resources to be used to address the problem.
- In most cases, the intervention begins with an assessment planning process, so that the authorities and other stakeholders understand the current situation, agree on common priorities, formulate strategic plans, define the implementation process, take part in the implementation monitoring, and evaluation process.
REFERENCES
1. Maria Muller, Lane Hoffman, community partnership in integrated sustainable waste expertise programme.
2. C.A Moser, G. Kalton; Survey Methods in social investigation (1979) Published by Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. Printed in GB (The chaser Press) Ltd.
3. Internet WWW.lib.az.us/cdt/commneeds.htm Community needs Assessment
Media-Tanzania Context
INTRODUCTION
This assignment work, will talk on Media, specifically in the Africa continent, the aim or main objective is to see to it, how much the media coverage has fostered the field of Community Economic development. Media is ranked as the most effective tool in transferring, disseminating, communicating and delivering useful information, as well as harmful information.
The work will also cover the following:-
(i) Theoretical literature of the concept as well as definitions of varying terms related to the term media.
(ii) For more understanding of the concept, highlights will be provided on the types of media; modes on which knowledge is communicated; Groups of Media; and the aspects of media.
(iii) The current position of the Media coverage in some of the African Countries (Empirical literature)
(iv) The significant of media coverage in influencing, community economic development (CED) in Tanzania and other developing Countries.
(v) Review of Tanzania Media Policy and its effect to the society.
(vi) Conclusion will be derived basing on lesson learned and my own views and opinions.
THEORETICAL LITRETURE
Media can be traced back since the ancient history. There were meant to record in formations and events, for the purpose of future use to develop knowledge or to communicate to people as to how certain issues had been handled in the past. Due to human knowledge, Media has been developed and transformed into varying types modes as well as groups.
For this case currently; “Media can be generally referred as a main way that a large number of people receive information and entertainment i.e Television, Radio, Newspapers, Magazines, Books, Journals, research papers etc”. it is any event attended by actor received widespread Media coverage. In instructing and defining the term Media, various terms and forms are employed; some among many terms and forms are as below:-
▪ Book:- A book is a collection of sheets of paper, parchment or other material with a piece of text written on them, bound to gather along one edge within covers. A book is also a literary work a main division of such work. A book produced in electronic format is known as an e-book. in library and information science, a book is called a monograph to distinguish it form serial publications such as magazines, journals of storing and transferring knowledge.
▪ Broadcasting:- Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and/or signals (programs) to a number of recipients (Listeners or viewers) that belong to a large group. This group may be the Public in general, or a relatively large audience within a public, thus, an internet channel may distribute text or music World wide while a public address system in (for example) a work place may broadcast very limited ad-hoc sound bites to a small population within its range.
▪ Communications:- The word “Communicate” comes from the Latin verb “Communicare” that means to make common. By virtue of its Latin Origin, it is also the source of the English word common. All share whatever is common. Newman W.H and summer C.F has provided communication. Is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by tow or more persons. Information is the key word in the first definition; communication consists in transmits information or communication transmits information not only about tangible facts and determinable ideas and opinions but also about emotions.
▪ Film:- A film is a term that encompasses motion pictures as well as the field in general. The origin of the name comes from the fact photographic film (also called film stock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist motion pictures (or just pictures or picture”) the silver screen, photo plays, the cinema, pictures shows flicks and commonly movies.
▪ Internet:- The internet (also commonly known as the “Net or the Web”) can be briefly understood as “a network of networks.” Specially, it is the World wide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmits data by packet switching using standard internet protocol (IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and governmental networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online charts, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.
▪ Journalism:- Journalism is a discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying and presenting information regarding current events, trends, issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists.
▪ Magazine:- Magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising and / or purchase by readers. Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly, with the date on the cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published. They are bound with a soft cover.
▪ Mass communication:- Sudan A. S Kumar (2004) in management skills development define Mass communication median as the instrument of communication, which conveys identical messages to a large number of persons who may be physically separated. Is any means of communication that takes place using electronic means e.g Radio, Televisions, computers, and all others printed materials i.e Magazines, News papers, journals and books. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/massmedia defined mass communication as a term used to denote a section of the media specifically envisaged and designed to reach a very large audience such as the population of a nation state. It was coined in the 1920s with the advent of national wide radio networks, mass circulation newspapers and magazines, although mass communication was present Countries before the term becomes common. The term public media has a similar meaning, it is the sum of the public mass distributors of news and entertainment across mediums such as newspapers, televisions, radio, broadcasting.
▪ Mass Media:- Mass Media are source of information and news such as newspapers magazines, radio and television that reach and influence large number of people
.
▪ Mass Wire Media:- Mass wire Media is a new Frontier of news reporting in the high tech age. A few decades ago news reporting was through news papers and radio and television. The radio broadcasts that were made famous by Franklin D. Roosevelt during World war II changed the way radio was looked at
.
▪ News papers:- A newspaper is publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low cost paper called newsprint. It may be general or special interests, most often published daily or weekly. The first printed newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies such as radio and television. Recent developments on the internet are posing major threats to its business model, however.
▪ Publishing:- Publishing is the Industry concerned with the production of literature or information the activity of making information available for public view. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers.
▪ Public Relations:- A public relation is the art and science of managing communication between an organizations and its key public to build, manage and sustain its positive image.
▪ Soft ware publishing:- A soft ware publisher is a publishing company in the soft ware industry between the developer and the distributor. In some companies, two or all of these roles may be combined.
▪ Video game:- A video game is a computer controlled game, where a video displays such as a monitor or television is the primary feedback device. The term “Computer games” text (and which can therefore theoretically be played on a teletype rewriter) or which use other methods, such as sound or vibration as their primary feedback device, but there are very few games in these categories.
TYPES OF MEDIA
The name chosen for CSS Media types reflect target devices for which the relevant properties make sense in the following list of CSS Media types the names of Media types are normative. Likewise, the “Media” field in the description of each property is informative. The following are commonly known types of media:-
▪ All:- Suitable for all devices
▪ Braille:- Intended for Braille tactile feedback devices.
▪ Embossed:- Intended for pages Braille printers.
▪ Handheld:- Intended for handheld devices (Typically small screens, limited bandwidth)
▪ Print:- Intended for paged material and for documents viewed on screen in print preview
code.
▪ Projection:- Intended for projected presentations, for example projectors.
▪ Screen:- Intended primarily for color computer screens.
▪ Speech:- Intended for speech synthesizers. Note: CSS2 had a similar media type called
‘aural’ for this purpose.
▪ TV:- Intended for Media using a fixed pitch character grid (such as teletypes, terminals, or
portable devices with limited display capabilities).
▪ TV:- Intended for television type devices (Low resolution, color, limited scroll ability
screens, sound available).
MODES IN WHICH KNOWLEDGE IS COMMUNICATED
Knowledge can be communicated using the following modes/means:-
▪ Audio:- Examples are radio stations in Tanzania, there is a mushrooming of radio stations; for example Radio Tanzania, TVT, ITV, channel 10, STAR TV, etc; mostly viewed in towns and cities, and some part of the rural setting.
▪ Visual:- This is a printing Media like magazine, journals, newspapers etc. in Tanzania most common in urban areas less in rural areas because of illiteracy.
MEDIA GROUP
Each CSS property definition specifies which Media type the property applies to. Since properties generally apply to several Media types, the “Applies to Media” section of each property definition lists media groups rather than individual media types. Each property applies than individual media types in the media groups listed in its definition.
Htt://WW.W3.org/TR/CSS21/Media.html#at media-rule in specifying Media dependent style sheets defines the following media groups:-
- Continuous or pages
- Visual, audio, speech, or tactile
- Grid (for charter grid devices), or bitmap.
- Interactive (for devices that allow user interaction), or static (for those that don’t)
- All (includes all media types)
MEDIA AS APPLIED IN OTHER DISPLINES;
According to Wiktionary, the free dictionary media is used to refer different meanings in varying disciplines: Examples are:-In communication it is used to denote:-
▪ Recording media, devices used to store information
▪ Print media communications delivered via paper or Canvas
▪ Electronic media communications delivered via electronic or electromechanical energy.
▪ Multimedia, communications that incorporate. Multimedia forms of in formations content
and Hypermedia, media with hyperlinks
▪ Digital Media, electronic Media made available to the public.
▪ Mass media, all means of mass communication
▪ Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass electronic communication networks
▪ News media, mass media focused on communicating news.
▪ Media Meshing, the act of combining multiple independent pieces of communication media
to enrich an information consumers experience.
▪ New media, media that can only be created or used with the aid of modern computer
processing power.
▪ Media for advertising, also media buying, or the choosing and buying of TV airtime, radio
airtime, newspapers etc, space for advertising.
In history:- Media refers to an empire founded in North Western Iran.
In Art:- Media refers to material and techniques used by an artist to produce work.
▪ In Biology:- Media refers to grow media, objects in which micro-organisms or cells can experience growth. It can also denote (Tunica media), the middle layer of the wall of a blood vessel.
▪ In Astronomy:- Kans media implies a star system in the constellation sagittarins.
▪ In Geography:- Implies medes, Media Pennsylvania, media Illinois.
▪ In Education:- Implies, media studies the study of media content, institutions and its role in society. Also refers to Multi-media learning, the study of learning given multimedia. It can also implies Media ecology, study of media environments.
▪ In popular culture:- Implies (Media album), the 1998 album by the faint.
EMPRIRICAL LITERATURE - FOCUS ON MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES, IN SOME OF AFRICAN STATES:
(i) Most current Media Coverage:- Kenya:
following the disputed elections which took place on the 27th of December 2007; Kenyans have endured a lot of pains and sufferings the past couple weeks. Many people have lost their life’s and …….sands has been displaced from their homes, and they are living in displacement camps. These conditions expose them to many risks and limit them access to health care as well as education, as many schools are forced to close to avoid harassment and killing to both students and teachers.
The police say that 510 people have died in the violence across the Country, which has also left over 250,000 displaced and property, worth billions located, torched or destroyed. (Sunday Nation, news paper; January 20th 2008). This situation of civil unrest, fighting’s, political instability will definitely put Kenya in a bleak economy for a foreseeable future if matters are not resolved not resolved immediately. Kenya economic in the last five years had been doing well, with social needs being improved, for example health care education infrastructure etc. the current situation will have a pull back in the improvement of community economic development of Kenya.
(ii) Uganda:- Recognition (news coverage CNN):-
Techno rating Tags: Africa, CNN, Journalists Richard Kavuma (August 01, 2007) reported Ugandan journalist Richard Kavuma of the weekly Observer has awarded CNN’s Multichoice African Journalism award for his coverage of how Uganda is working toward meeting the millennium development Goals. In outlining Kavuma’s accomplishment, he asks why the award is so little publicized in the African biogosphare. Probably because most of the sources African blogs link to are not African.
(iii) Zimbabwe: Coverage (unfair)
Africa Media watch (Friday, 5 May 2000, 17:45 GMT 18:45 UK) reported that; president Robert Mugabe singled out the BBC and CNN for giving “extensive coverage” to the deaths of white farmers rather than black war veterans. News organizations he said, were supporting white commercial farmers rather than the landless majority. However, an independent news paper journalist in Zimbabwe said reporters were being hindered in their attempts to present both sides the story in the land crisis. Brian Hungwe of the “Independent” said there was sympathetic to Mugabe. Hungwe said he was unable to visit farms invaded by war veterans because he was automatically viewed as “working for whites” and journalist faced victimization and death threats since the land crisis started in Zimbabwe, their had been political instability as well civil unrest. The result of this situation is a drawback in Zimbabwe economic growth.
(iv) Ghana:- “Sycophantic journalism.”
The government and Public officials in Ghana also view independent journalists with suspicion, according to the ‘Ghananian chronicle. Private journalists are sometimes refused invitations to public functions and public functions and public officials do not grant interviews because reporters do not write in favor of the government. “No wonder some journalists becomes sycophants, “The paper commented. “Treating critics of the government and society as a whole as criminals is not the best way to create a culture of respect for democratic values and basic liberties.”
(v) Ethiopia:- “Political Correctness”
in Ethiopia , the Monitor’ pointed out a bias in the media in its coverage of foreign stories and its disregard for domestic disasters. “It is mind-boggling as to why we are made to watch gory footage of developments in the outside World while our own tragedies are presented in perfunctory manner or even at times ignored.”
(vi) Kenya: “Pseudo journalism”
Kenya’s Daily Nations said journalism had come a long way, since the days when state controlled media had the last word on events. Now days there are more stories on issue such as the environment, international affairs gender and education than before. But 27th December 2007, the government prohibited the media from direct broadcasting, events of violence, killings, brought by suspicion that the votes had been rigged.
(vii) Zambia: “No money for media”
In Lusaka, the ‘Zambia post’ accused its government of denying access to information by barring in independent journalists from public offices and events. But it said another reason for the lack of vibrant private press was the economy people cannot afford to buy news papers with low incomes which have to be spent on meeting daily needs, the ‘post’ said.
AFRICANS PERCEPTIONS OVER INTERNATIONAL NEWS COVERAGE ON AFRICA’S AFFAIRS:-
According to technocratic Tags; Africa, international news, pew (July 26, 2007) in journalism; the pew global altitudes project report, “Half of all African Countries surveyed believe international news coverage of their Country is fair. This includes Senegal, South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, Mali and to a lesser extent Uganda. Nigeria, Ghana, Ivory cost and Ethiopia don’t agree. In particular, Ethiopians (a whopping 71 percent) see this might account for the nasty send off BBC reporter Andrew Heavens of Meskel square got on his blog when he relocated from Addis to Khartoum.
The poll consisted of face-to-face interviews with more than 8,000 adults in 10 African Countries and summarized in the New York times, which interestingly, choose to illustrate the story with a photo of Nigerian poll workers in this spring disputed elections.
Eastern and southern Anglo Africans believes they are getting a fairer portrait than Western Anglo African Countries. Do International reporters spend more time in the East and South? Tend to be based in those regions and thus likely to develop more announced ideas about them leading to more favorable coverage?.
THE INFLUENCE OF MEDIA COVERAGE OF AFRICA IN THE FIELD OF COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (CED) CASE STUDY TANZANIA
Just after independence; Tanzania adapted the socialism and self-reliance economic policy, in an attempt to bring, about social equality in the distribution of the National wealth, in a bid to avoid social segregation and eliminate or reduce the gap between the few rich and majority poor. This led to the introduction of the most renounced; the so called “Arusha declaration” just after the Arusha declaration, Tanzania introduced and disseminated several state owned magazines,, news papers educational radio programs e.g (kipindi cha mkulima bora) broadcasted through Radio Tanzania Dar-es-Salaam (RTD) mainly on agricultural issues, taking into consideration that the main stream of Tanzania’s economy is Agriculture by more than 80%. The information’s insisted on better agricultural practices, this includes proper tillage, early preparation of farm fields, quality seeds, soil preservations the use of organic manure (composed manure) new agricultural technologies, markets through cooperatives “Agricultural marketing cooperatives.” The Mkulima wa Kisasa books series by the directorate of agriculture development in the Ministry of agricultural and livestock development and radio broadcasting programmes by Radio Tanzania Dar-es-Salaam were very common in Tanzania. Short programmes on agriculture, livestock and mining, fishing entrepreneur and market development are being broadcasted through radio, magazines, brochures, journal, news paper, and TV’s. this programmes become so helpful to the community, where by people are implementing immediately for their development. In rural areas, problem of literacy is witnessed which leads to low reading skills.
According to this week on perspective program through TVT (Sunday, December 30th 2007), many of rural information are not covered. The panel argued that journalists are not reading to rural areas as a result of lack of financial capacity, poor infrastructures and energy / power. It is also argued that Tanzanians are lacking reading habits, so deliberate efforts are to be taken, to do mass education through Radio programs and Television shows. Makole Seif Seteo a resident of it so village from Chanwino district in Dodoma region complained that their information are not broadcasted as media personnel are not reaching the village.
Mwananchi newspapers (December ,19th 2007), under Morogoro News, page 9 reported that poverty and traditions are causes of gender discrimination. Most of Women in rural Tanzania are not informed and they Critically lack Civil education (human rights) as well as essential skills and knowledge on better agricultural techniques, and entrepreneurship. In this way their productivity is poor, and hence continue to be the poverty circle. Many people interviewed in rural settings admit that Media Coverage in terms of rural population being informed of development changes especially on technological advancement. In most cases political matters are more prevalent, carrying unqualified statements aimed at lobbing for individual gains. Due to the fact that many people in the rural areas are engaged in subsistence farming and livestock – keeping it is of high priority to provide them with up – date information on better agricultural technological techniques to enable them improve their productivity, which will get them out of the poverty circle.
From 1992, Tanzania witnessed a rapid rise of FM radio stations by local government, faith based organizations and individuals. Most of these stations are greatly helping in promoting production in various sectors of the economy move significantly in the agricultural and livestock sectors; positive improvement are noticeable leading to poverty alleviation and economic growth. Some example are Radio sauti ya Injili of Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania, Northern Diocese has been promoting some of cash crops production. Illaramatak in Terat Simanjiro has a special programme on livestock development and illiteracy eradication in the Maasai community. The radio sensitize the Maasai community to change their attitudes of valuing livestock than anything in the world and advice them to sell their cows and send their children to school to get education for future well being of the Maasai communities.
All of these programmes and many others are aimed at improving the well being of the rural communities i.e Community economic Development.
TANZANIA MEDIA POLICY 2001 REVIEW
CONTENTS: - The policy notes numerous responsibilities of the media, media owners, newspapers and magazines, news agencies, radio and television films and videos and media association. Almost no one would disagree that all of these are land able goals for these various bodies and people. However, only a few of these responsibilities are legitimate topics for legal regulations although are dealt with through self – regulation in other countries. At several places the policy lists a series of responsibilities under one point as follows: -
Paragraph 3.6 list 10 “functions” of the media
Paragraph 5.5 list 8 principles which media owners are “required to abide by”
Paragraph 6.2 lists 3 tasks which news paper and magazines are “required to perform”
Paragraph 7.5 lists 6 tasks which news agencies “Shall perform”
Paragraph 9.3 lists 5 “obligations” of films, video and audio visual companies
Paragraph 11.2 and 11.3 lists 3 tasks that the media council “shall” undertake
Paragraph 12.2 lists 4 “major tasks” of media associations
Most of the responsibilities in all of these lists should not, under international and constitutional guarantees of freedom of expression be subjected to legal regulation. A few examples (one for each sector) are as follows:
3.6 (b) (function of the media) “Indicate relations of power in society”
5.5 (e) (principles of media owners) “provide adequate professional training for staff”
6.2 (a) (tasks of news papers) “Maintaining the highest standards of professionalism and ethical conduct”
7.5 (c) (tasks of new agencies) “reports on events that take place daily”
9.3 (a) (obligation of films and videos) “Collaborate with artists with a view to developing their skills and thus promote national culture”
11.3 (b) (task media council) “Maintaining and raise professional standards and ensure the well being of those in the media profession”
12.2 (C) (major tasks of the media associations) “Cooperate with other media association of similar nature for the benefit of their members.
Paragraph 8.7 specifically states that “Central and Local Government shall be broadcasting” this not only runs counter to the fundamental principle that public media should not be government controlled, but also appears to reflect a misunderstanding about the difference between public and community broadcasting. Community broadcasting is broadcasting which is for by and about the community whose ownership and management is representative of the community and which is non – profit. This has been responded positively and now many district and cities for example Hai, Same, Shinyanga, Newala, Maswa Kondoa to mention few established radio and TV Stations. The intention of establishment of these stations is to promote community entrepreneurship production.
THE IMPACT OF THE MEDIA TO THE COMMUNITY LIVES IN TANZANIA
Change of culture: - Beyond the influence of internet and television and the rapid usage of internet by accessing various web pages, a significant erosion of societal norms believes culture and tradition is the impact; especially among the young generation who tends to emulate and value Western or cross border lifestyles and disregard our ancestors heritage
Change in behavior attitudes: Media can influence much to our behavior. This can be adopted through watching different actions in various TV movies, pornographies and even listening to music on radios which are immoral in some of our culture \. At the moment such changes in individual behavior are prominent, for example increase big crimes people dressing half necked especially women loss of community spirit and love. Communication researches (1998) come u with the following statistics of the study 61% of television programs contain some violence only by 4% “violence” themes 44% of violent episodes on TVs involve characters with some qualities worthy of emulation.
Difficulties in social control: As the media is one of the main sources of information, for most people in urban virtually watch television read news papers and magazines and Browse in the internet they play an important part in making people conform. Every society needs order and predictability, his involves persuading people to behave in certain social and acceptable ways and punishing those who refuse to do so. However, the range of magazines, television programmes and newspapers stories do give different social activities which in one way or another mislead the young generation and make them react the way that parents find so difficult to change them. The uses of mobile phones read magazines browse in the internet and participate in all Media play an important role to change social behavior to our society.
Change of personal behavior:- The media has direct effect on individuals. People are said to respond to the “stimulus” message of the media. For example a child watching a television program containing violence is likely to be influenced into committing a similar violence. Another ones attitude towards women are strongly influenced by the way they are portrayed in the media. “Sexy” photographs in magazines and sexual images in film do not directly drive men into raping women but it does strengthen the way in which they see women, but it does strengthen the way in which they see women as sexual figures whose looks count move than their personalities.
Influence groups or individual opinions. Most people have one or a number of individuals whose opinion they respect and they are more likely to be swayed in their opinions by the views of these “opinion leaders” than directly by the media. People are only influenced by the media when the opinion leaders are in agreement.
The effect of mass media messages on audiences: - In the past this concern has focused on comic books motion pictures and television violence. Move recently, new areas of concern have been added hate messages and instructions for making bombs on the internet antisocial messages in rap music, suicide themes in heavy mental music and drug use and sexual content in television dramatic programs. Gerbueretal (1980) argued that television has become the central cultural arm of society. The television set has become a key number of the family the one wo tells most of the stories most of the time. There are average viewers and heavy viewers, television virtually monopolizes and subsumes other sources of information ideas and conscious. The effect of all this exposure to the same message produces what the researches call cultivation or the teaching of a common worldview, common roles and common values.
Media corrupt children mind: -
Television has shown to have a great influence on the development of school – age children. Television has changed the way we live and the way we carry on our family life. Heavy viewing of television programs has been consistently associated with aggression in both childen and adults (Lie bert & Sprafkin 1988). In general, heavy television viewing is associated with poor school achievement. Heavy viewing also is associated with poorer reading comprehension, poorer language usage and appears to inhibit the development of imagination Television also shapes what is called “world knowledge” this is good in so far as television reflects reality, but this exposure can cause problem for example, children who are heavy viewers of television, especially of realistic actions they shows such as police dramas tend to view the world as a mean and scary place and as more dangerous. Television instills certain paranoia in these children and many make them more fearful and less trusting of other people.
Media induce teen sexual behavior. According to the fact sheet, marketing sex to children, from the campaign for a commercial free childhood, children are bombarded with sexual content and messages. Sexual content regularly marketed to younger children, pre – teens; this affects younger people’s sexual activity and beliefs about sex. Some researchers findings (2003) show that: - In 2003 83% of the episodes of the top 20 shows among teens viewers continued some sexual content, including 20% with sexual intercourse 42% of the songs on CDs in 1999 content 19% included direct description of sexual intercourse. On average, music videos containing 93 sexual situation per hour, including eleven “hard core” scenes depending behavior such as intercourse and oral sex. Girls who watched more than 14 hours of rap music videos per week were more likely to have multiple sex partners and to be diagnosed with sexually transmitted diseases.
Media can influence aggression: By the time the average child complete elementary school, he or she will have watched 8,000 murders and more than 100,000 various other acts of violence. Aggression is highly motivated for people who are in nature aggressive. The males who were most aggressive at the age of 8 were still aggressive at the age of 19 and 30 many of them showing antisocial behavior ranging from traffic violation towards their spouses and children.
Media as cause of prejudice:- The mass media plays a role in the development of prejudice. Members of various racial and ethic minorities were shown to be infrequently in movies or on Television. In addition, when they did appear, they were often cast in low status or comic role.
CONCLUSION
For the Africa continent media industry is facing a lot of problems, regardless loud voices from the media owners, media professionals as well as beneficiaries. Many African government has consistently suppressed private media industries, only because of fear that private media, if given full freedom can reveal bad acts or inefficiencies of the ruling regime The media has, some negative impacts to the society but if the media is purposely designed and directed towards addressing specific community needs very positive impacts are always realized. For example, educational programs in the Radio or TV or special journal or magazines on better hygiene to avoid cholera, precaution against HIV infection, precaution against plants diseases, livestock disease eg Rift valley fever, bird flu etc. all these and many other useful skills and knowledge can be transmitted and disseminated using different types of media. The only most significant factor here is to make sure that the information, can be easily accessed and acquired by the targeted poor communities, the poor communities should be able to get the right information easily and at affordable cost, and language to which the information is written should be understandable to the vast majority.
Experience shows that just after independence, in many African states the media industry was dominated by the state machinery and there was no private media industry. Just after the attainment of independence the state used the media mainly to advocate political ideologies which the rulers acquired or adopted just after independence the aim was to justify the suitability of the selected ideology, for the people to support and implement, in order to bring about national economic development . In some stages some private media industries for example books writers (Ole Soyinka, Chinua Achebe) and many others emerged, but the ruling regimes suppressed, discouraged or burned completely due to fear that they will influence people to act
against the ruling regime. This to some extent slowed down the process of bringing about community economic development; due to lack of democracy transparency and the rule of law. Free and sovereign media industry enhanced public awareness in both social, cultural, economic and political understanding, this will make the community to effectively take part in all national development programs. In the other hand the freedom and sovereignty should have limits to safeguard the national interest the government; should enact media laws and regulations in a bid to institute control over some media which might be up to instigate national disintegration for aim of individual or group gains. The laws and regulations should also aim safeguarding national integrity, identity as well as promoting sustainable development through different types of media with the end results of alleviating poverty of the majority poor in the African continent
“GOD BLESS AFRICA – MUNGU IBARIKI AFRICA-MUNGU IBARIKI TANZANIA”
REFERENCE
Sudan A. S & Kumar N. (2004) Management Skills Development; An Mol Publication PUT LTD New Delhi.
Trawler P. (1996) Investigating Mass Media; 2nd Edition, London Collins Education Inc.
Trawler P. (2006) Investigating Mass Media; Collins Education press, US.
ARTICLE 19 Global campaign for free Expression (2001); New Tanzania Media Policy; Comments on the Draft for Discussion by state holder
Wiktionary, special, search/ mass media.
Wiktionary; the free dictionary
http://www.interscience.wiley.com
http://www.w3.org/TR/CSS21/Media.htm#at–media–rule
http://www.terramedia.co.uk/chronomedia/years/1909.html
http://www.pewinternet.org/cgi-bin/abstract/12279/ABSTRACT?
http://technorati.com/taq/Richard+Kavuma.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/Africa/default.stm.
http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/africa/07/22africajournalist
http://africamedia.typepad.commy_weblog/2007/07/half-07-all-afr.htm
This assignment work, will talk on Media, specifically in the Africa continent, the aim or main objective is to see to it, how much the media coverage has fostered the field of Community Economic development. Media is ranked as the most effective tool in transferring, disseminating, communicating and delivering useful information, as well as harmful information.
The work will also cover the following:-
(i) Theoretical literature of the concept as well as definitions of varying terms related to the term media.
(ii) For more understanding of the concept, highlights will be provided on the types of media; modes on which knowledge is communicated; Groups of Media; and the aspects of media.
(iii) The current position of the Media coverage in some of the African Countries (Empirical literature)
(iv) The significant of media coverage in influencing, community economic development (CED) in Tanzania and other developing Countries.
(v) Review of Tanzania Media Policy and its effect to the society.
(vi) Conclusion will be derived basing on lesson learned and my own views and opinions.
THEORETICAL LITRETURE
Media can be traced back since the ancient history. There were meant to record in formations and events, for the purpose of future use to develop knowledge or to communicate to people as to how certain issues had been handled in the past. Due to human knowledge, Media has been developed and transformed into varying types modes as well as groups.
For this case currently; “Media can be generally referred as a main way that a large number of people receive information and entertainment i.e Television, Radio, Newspapers, Magazines, Books, Journals, research papers etc”. it is any event attended by actor received widespread Media coverage. In instructing and defining the term Media, various terms and forms are employed; some among many terms and forms are as below:-
▪ Book:- A book is a collection of sheets of paper, parchment or other material with a piece of text written on them, bound to gather along one edge within covers. A book is also a literary work a main division of such work. A book produced in electronic format is known as an e-book. in library and information science, a book is called a monograph to distinguish it form serial publications such as magazines, journals of storing and transferring knowledge.
▪ Broadcasting:- Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and/or signals (programs) to a number of recipients (Listeners or viewers) that belong to a large group. This group may be the Public in general, or a relatively large audience within a public, thus, an internet channel may distribute text or music World wide while a public address system in (for example) a work place may broadcast very limited ad-hoc sound bites to a small population within its range.
▪ Communications:- The word “Communicate” comes from the Latin verb “Communicare” that means to make common. By virtue of its Latin Origin, it is also the source of the English word common. All share whatever is common. Newman W.H and summer C.F has provided communication. Is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by tow or more persons. Information is the key word in the first definition; communication consists in transmits information or communication transmits information not only about tangible facts and determinable ideas and opinions but also about emotions.
▪ Film:- A film is a term that encompasses motion pictures as well as the field in general. The origin of the name comes from the fact photographic film (also called film stock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist motion pictures (or just pictures or picture”) the silver screen, photo plays, the cinema, pictures shows flicks and commonly movies.
▪ Internet:- The internet (also commonly known as the “Net or the Web”) can be briefly understood as “a network of networks.” Specially, it is the World wide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmits data by packet switching using standard internet protocol (IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and governmental networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online charts, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.
▪ Journalism:- Journalism is a discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying and presenting information regarding current events, trends, issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists.
▪ Magazine:- Magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising and / or purchase by readers. Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly, with the date on the cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published. They are bound with a soft cover.
▪ Mass communication:- Sudan A. S Kumar (2004) in management skills development define Mass communication median as the instrument of communication, which conveys identical messages to a large number of persons who may be physically separated. Is any means of communication that takes place using electronic means e.g Radio, Televisions, computers, and all others printed materials i.e Magazines, News papers, journals and books. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/massmedia defined mass communication as a term used to denote a section of the media specifically envisaged and designed to reach a very large audience such as the population of a nation state. It was coined in the 1920s with the advent of national wide radio networks, mass circulation newspapers and magazines, although mass communication was present Countries before the term becomes common. The term public media has a similar meaning, it is the sum of the public mass distributors of news and entertainment across mediums such as newspapers, televisions, radio, broadcasting.
▪ Mass Media:- Mass Media are source of information and news such as newspapers magazines, radio and television that reach and influence large number of people
.
▪ Mass Wire Media:- Mass wire Media is a new Frontier of news reporting in the high tech age. A few decades ago news reporting was through news papers and radio and television. The radio broadcasts that were made famous by Franklin D. Roosevelt during World war II changed the way radio was looked at
.
▪ News papers:- A newspaper is publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low cost paper called newsprint. It may be general or special interests, most often published daily or weekly. The first printed newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies such as radio and television. Recent developments on the internet are posing major threats to its business model, however.
▪ Publishing:- Publishing is the Industry concerned with the production of literature or information the activity of making information available for public view. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers.
▪ Public Relations:- A public relation is the art and science of managing communication between an organizations and its key public to build, manage and sustain its positive image.
▪ Soft ware publishing:- A soft ware publisher is a publishing company in the soft ware industry between the developer and the distributor. In some companies, two or all of these roles may be combined.
▪ Video game:- A video game is a computer controlled game, where a video displays such as a monitor or television is the primary feedback device. The term “Computer games” text (and which can therefore theoretically be played on a teletype rewriter) or which use other methods, such as sound or vibration as their primary feedback device, but there are very few games in these categories.
TYPES OF MEDIA
The name chosen for CSS Media types reflect target devices for which the relevant properties make sense in the following list of CSS Media types the names of Media types are normative. Likewise, the “Media” field in the description of each property is informative. The following are commonly known types of media:-
▪ All:- Suitable for all devices
▪ Braille:- Intended for Braille tactile feedback devices.
▪ Embossed:- Intended for pages Braille printers.
▪ Handheld:- Intended for handheld devices (Typically small screens, limited bandwidth)
▪ Print:- Intended for paged material and for documents viewed on screen in print preview
code.
▪ Projection:- Intended for projected presentations, for example projectors.
▪ Screen:- Intended primarily for color computer screens.
▪ Speech:- Intended for speech synthesizers. Note: CSS2 had a similar media type called
‘aural’ for this purpose.
▪ TV:- Intended for Media using a fixed pitch character grid (such as teletypes, terminals, or
portable devices with limited display capabilities).
▪ TV:- Intended for television type devices (Low resolution, color, limited scroll ability
screens, sound available).
MODES IN WHICH KNOWLEDGE IS COMMUNICATED
Knowledge can be communicated using the following modes/means:-
▪ Audio:- Examples are radio stations in Tanzania, there is a mushrooming of radio stations; for example Radio Tanzania, TVT, ITV, channel 10, STAR TV, etc; mostly viewed in towns and cities, and some part of the rural setting.
▪ Visual:- This is a printing Media like magazine, journals, newspapers etc. in Tanzania most common in urban areas less in rural areas because of illiteracy.
MEDIA GROUP
Each CSS property definition specifies which Media type the property applies to. Since properties generally apply to several Media types, the “Applies to Media” section of each property definition lists media groups rather than individual media types. Each property applies than individual media types in the media groups listed in its definition.
Htt://WW.W3.org/TR/CSS21/Media.html#at media-rule in specifying Media dependent style sheets defines the following media groups:-
- Continuous or pages
- Visual, audio, speech, or tactile
- Grid (for charter grid devices), or bitmap.
- Interactive (for devices that allow user interaction), or static (for those that don’t)
- All (includes all media types)
MEDIA AS APPLIED IN OTHER DISPLINES;
According to Wiktionary, the free dictionary media is used to refer different meanings in varying disciplines: Examples are:-In communication it is used to denote:-
▪ Recording media, devices used to store information
▪ Print media communications delivered via paper or Canvas
▪ Electronic media communications delivered via electronic or electromechanical energy.
▪ Multimedia, communications that incorporate. Multimedia forms of in formations content
and Hypermedia, media with hyperlinks
▪ Digital Media, electronic Media made available to the public.
▪ Mass media, all means of mass communication
▪ Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass electronic communication networks
▪ News media, mass media focused on communicating news.
▪ Media Meshing, the act of combining multiple independent pieces of communication media
to enrich an information consumers experience.
▪ New media, media that can only be created or used with the aid of modern computer
processing power.
▪ Media for advertising, also media buying, or the choosing and buying of TV airtime, radio
airtime, newspapers etc, space for advertising.
In history:- Media refers to an empire founded in North Western Iran.
In Art:- Media refers to material and techniques used by an artist to produce work.
▪ In Biology:- Media refers to grow media, objects in which micro-organisms or cells can experience growth. It can also denote (Tunica media), the middle layer of the wall of a blood vessel.
▪ In Astronomy:- Kans media implies a star system in the constellation sagittarins.
▪ In Geography:- Implies medes, Media Pennsylvania, media Illinois.
▪ In Education:- Implies, media studies the study of media content, institutions and its role in society. Also refers to Multi-media learning, the study of learning given multimedia. It can also implies Media ecology, study of media environments.
▪ In popular culture:- Implies (Media album), the 1998 album by the faint.
EMPRIRICAL LITERATURE - FOCUS ON MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES, IN SOME OF AFRICAN STATES:
(i) Most current Media Coverage:- Kenya:
following the disputed elections which took place on the 27th of December 2007; Kenyans have endured a lot of pains and sufferings the past couple weeks. Many people have lost their life’s and …….sands has been displaced from their homes, and they are living in displacement camps. These conditions expose them to many risks and limit them access to health care as well as education, as many schools are forced to close to avoid harassment and killing to both students and teachers.
The police say that 510 people have died in the violence across the Country, which has also left over 250,000 displaced and property, worth billions located, torched or destroyed. (Sunday Nation, news paper; January 20th 2008). This situation of civil unrest, fighting’s, political instability will definitely put Kenya in a bleak economy for a foreseeable future if matters are not resolved not resolved immediately. Kenya economic in the last five years had been doing well, with social needs being improved, for example health care education infrastructure etc. the current situation will have a pull back in the improvement of community economic development of Kenya.
(ii) Uganda:- Recognition (news coverage CNN):-
Techno rating Tags: Africa, CNN, Journalists Richard Kavuma (August 01, 2007) reported Ugandan journalist Richard Kavuma of the weekly Observer has awarded CNN’s Multichoice African Journalism award for his coverage of how Uganda is working toward meeting the millennium development Goals. In outlining Kavuma’s accomplishment, he asks why the award is so little publicized in the African biogosphare. Probably because most of the sources African blogs link to are not African.
(iii) Zimbabwe: Coverage (unfair)
Africa Media watch (Friday, 5 May 2000, 17:45 GMT 18:45 UK) reported that; president Robert Mugabe singled out the BBC and CNN for giving “extensive coverage” to the deaths of white farmers rather than black war veterans. News organizations he said, were supporting white commercial farmers rather than the landless majority. However, an independent news paper journalist in Zimbabwe said reporters were being hindered in their attempts to present both sides the story in the land crisis. Brian Hungwe of the “Independent” said there was sympathetic to Mugabe. Hungwe said he was unable to visit farms invaded by war veterans because he was automatically viewed as “working for whites” and journalist faced victimization and death threats since the land crisis started in Zimbabwe, their had been political instability as well civil unrest. The result of this situation is a drawback in Zimbabwe economic growth.
(iv) Ghana:- “Sycophantic journalism.”
The government and Public officials in Ghana also view independent journalists with suspicion, according to the ‘Ghananian chronicle. Private journalists are sometimes refused invitations to public functions and public functions and public officials do not grant interviews because reporters do not write in favor of the government. “No wonder some journalists becomes sycophants, “The paper commented. “Treating critics of the government and society as a whole as criminals is not the best way to create a culture of respect for democratic values and basic liberties.”
(v) Ethiopia:- “Political Correctness”
in Ethiopia , the Monitor’ pointed out a bias in the media in its coverage of foreign stories and its disregard for domestic disasters. “It is mind-boggling as to why we are made to watch gory footage of developments in the outside World while our own tragedies are presented in perfunctory manner or even at times ignored.”
(vi) Kenya: “Pseudo journalism”
Kenya’s Daily Nations said journalism had come a long way, since the days when state controlled media had the last word on events. Now days there are more stories on issue such as the environment, international affairs gender and education than before. But 27th December 2007, the government prohibited the media from direct broadcasting, events of violence, killings, brought by suspicion that the votes had been rigged.
(vii) Zambia: “No money for media”
In Lusaka, the ‘Zambia post’ accused its government of denying access to information by barring in independent journalists from public offices and events. But it said another reason for the lack of vibrant private press was the economy people cannot afford to buy news papers with low incomes which have to be spent on meeting daily needs, the ‘post’ said.
AFRICANS PERCEPTIONS OVER INTERNATIONAL NEWS COVERAGE ON AFRICA’S AFFAIRS:-
According to technocratic Tags; Africa, international news, pew (July 26, 2007) in journalism; the pew global altitudes project report, “Half of all African Countries surveyed believe international news coverage of their Country is fair. This includes Senegal, South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, Mali and to a lesser extent Uganda. Nigeria, Ghana, Ivory cost and Ethiopia don’t agree. In particular, Ethiopians (a whopping 71 percent) see this might account for the nasty send off BBC reporter Andrew Heavens of Meskel square got on his blog when he relocated from Addis to Khartoum.
The poll consisted of face-to-face interviews with more than 8,000 adults in 10 African Countries and summarized in the New York times, which interestingly, choose to illustrate the story with a photo of Nigerian poll workers in this spring disputed elections.
Eastern and southern Anglo Africans believes they are getting a fairer portrait than Western Anglo African Countries. Do International reporters spend more time in the East and South? Tend to be based in those regions and thus likely to develop more announced ideas about them leading to more favorable coverage?.
THE INFLUENCE OF MEDIA COVERAGE OF AFRICA IN THE FIELD OF COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (CED) CASE STUDY TANZANIA
Just after independence; Tanzania adapted the socialism and self-reliance economic policy, in an attempt to bring, about social equality in the distribution of the National wealth, in a bid to avoid social segregation and eliminate or reduce the gap between the few rich and majority poor. This led to the introduction of the most renounced; the so called “Arusha declaration” just after the Arusha declaration, Tanzania introduced and disseminated several state owned magazines,, news papers educational radio programs e.g (kipindi cha mkulima bora) broadcasted through Radio Tanzania Dar-es-Salaam (RTD) mainly on agricultural issues, taking into consideration that the main stream of Tanzania’s economy is Agriculture by more than 80%. The information’s insisted on better agricultural practices, this includes proper tillage, early preparation of farm fields, quality seeds, soil preservations the use of organic manure (composed manure) new agricultural technologies, markets through cooperatives “Agricultural marketing cooperatives.” The Mkulima wa Kisasa books series by the directorate of agriculture development in the Ministry of agricultural and livestock development and radio broadcasting programmes by Radio Tanzania Dar-es-Salaam were very common in Tanzania. Short programmes on agriculture, livestock and mining, fishing entrepreneur and market development are being broadcasted through radio, magazines, brochures, journal, news paper, and TV’s. this programmes become so helpful to the community, where by people are implementing immediately for their development. In rural areas, problem of literacy is witnessed which leads to low reading skills.
According to this week on perspective program through TVT (Sunday, December 30th 2007), many of rural information are not covered. The panel argued that journalists are not reading to rural areas as a result of lack of financial capacity, poor infrastructures and energy / power. It is also argued that Tanzanians are lacking reading habits, so deliberate efforts are to be taken, to do mass education through Radio programs and Television shows. Makole Seif Seteo a resident of it so village from Chanwino district in Dodoma region complained that their information are not broadcasted as media personnel are not reaching the village.
Mwananchi newspapers (December ,19th 2007), under Morogoro News, page 9 reported that poverty and traditions are causes of gender discrimination. Most of Women in rural Tanzania are not informed and they Critically lack Civil education (human rights) as well as essential skills and knowledge on better agricultural techniques, and entrepreneurship. In this way their productivity is poor, and hence continue to be the poverty circle. Many people interviewed in rural settings admit that Media Coverage in terms of rural population being informed of development changes especially on technological advancement. In most cases political matters are more prevalent, carrying unqualified statements aimed at lobbing for individual gains. Due to the fact that many people in the rural areas are engaged in subsistence farming and livestock – keeping it is of high priority to provide them with up – date information on better agricultural technological techniques to enable them improve their productivity, which will get them out of the poverty circle.
From 1992, Tanzania witnessed a rapid rise of FM radio stations by local government, faith based organizations and individuals. Most of these stations are greatly helping in promoting production in various sectors of the economy move significantly in the agricultural and livestock sectors; positive improvement are noticeable leading to poverty alleviation and economic growth. Some example are Radio sauti ya Injili of Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania, Northern Diocese has been promoting some of cash crops production. Illaramatak in Terat Simanjiro has a special programme on livestock development and illiteracy eradication in the Maasai community. The radio sensitize the Maasai community to change their attitudes of valuing livestock than anything in the world and advice them to sell their cows and send their children to school to get education for future well being of the Maasai communities.
All of these programmes and many others are aimed at improving the well being of the rural communities i.e Community economic Development.
TANZANIA MEDIA POLICY 2001 REVIEW
CONTENTS: - The policy notes numerous responsibilities of the media, media owners, newspapers and magazines, news agencies, radio and television films and videos and media association. Almost no one would disagree that all of these are land able goals for these various bodies and people. However, only a few of these responsibilities are legitimate topics for legal regulations although are dealt with through self – regulation in other countries. At several places the policy lists a series of responsibilities under one point as follows: -
Paragraph 3.6 list 10 “functions” of the media
Paragraph 5.5 list 8 principles which media owners are “required to abide by”
Paragraph 6.2 lists 3 tasks which news paper and magazines are “required to perform”
Paragraph 7.5 lists 6 tasks which news agencies “Shall perform”
Paragraph 9.3 lists 5 “obligations” of films, video and audio visual companies
Paragraph 11.2 and 11.3 lists 3 tasks that the media council “shall” undertake
Paragraph 12.2 lists 4 “major tasks” of media associations
Most of the responsibilities in all of these lists should not, under international and constitutional guarantees of freedom of expression be subjected to legal regulation. A few examples (one for each sector) are as follows:
3.6 (b) (function of the media) “Indicate relations of power in society”
5.5 (e) (principles of media owners) “provide adequate professional training for staff”
6.2 (a) (tasks of news papers) “Maintaining the highest standards of professionalism and ethical conduct”
7.5 (c) (tasks of new agencies) “reports on events that take place daily”
9.3 (a) (obligation of films and videos) “Collaborate with artists with a view to developing their skills and thus promote national culture”
11.3 (b) (task media council) “Maintaining and raise professional standards and ensure the well being of those in the media profession”
12.2 (C) (major tasks of the media associations) “Cooperate with other media association of similar nature for the benefit of their members.
Paragraph 8.7 specifically states that “Central and Local Government shall be broadcasting” this not only runs counter to the fundamental principle that public media should not be government controlled, but also appears to reflect a misunderstanding about the difference between public and community broadcasting. Community broadcasting is broadcasting which is for by and about the community whose ownership and management is representative of the community and which is non – profit. This has been responded positively and now many district and cities for example Hai, Same, Shinyanga, Newala, Maswa Kondoa to mention few established radio and TV Stations. The intention of establishment of these stations is to promote community entrepreneurship production.
THE IMPACT OF THE MEDIA TO THE COMMUNITY LIVES IN TANZANIA
Change of culture: - Beyond the influence of internet and television and the rapid usage of internet by accessing various web pages, a significant erosion of societal norms believes culture and tradition is the impact; especially among the young generation who tends to emulate and value Western or cross border lifestyles and disregard our ancestors heritage
Change in behavior attitudes: Media can influence much to our behavior. This can be adopted through watching different actions in various TV movies, pornographies and even listening to music on radios which are immoral in some of our culture \. At the moment such changes in individual behavior are prominent, for example increase big crimes people dressing half necked especially women loss of community spirit and love. Communication researches (1998) come u with the following statistics of the study 61% of television programs contain some violence only by 4% “violence” themes 44% of violent episodes on TVs involve characters with some qualities worthy of emulation.
Difficulties in social control: As the media is one of the main sources of information, for most people in urban virtually watch television read news papers and magazines and Browse in the internet they play an important part in making people conform. Every society needs order and predictability, his involves persuading people to behave in certain social and acceptable ways and punishing those who refuse to do so. However, the range of magazines, television programmes and newspapers stories do give different social activities which in one way or another mislead the young generation and make them react the way that parents find so difficult to change them. The uses of mobile phones read magazines browse in the internet and participate in all Media play an important role to change social behavior to our society.
Change of personal behavior:- The media has direct effect on individuals. People are said to respond to the “stimulus” message of the media. For example a child watching a television program containing violence is likely to be influenced into committing a similar violence. Another ones attitude towards women are strongly influenced by the way they are portrayed in the media. “Sexy” photographs in magazines and sexual images in film do not directly drive men into raping women but it does strengthen the way in which they see women, but it does strengthen the way in which they see women as sexual figures whose looks count move than their personalities.
Influence groups or individual opinions. Most people have one or a number of individuals whose opinion they respect and they are more likely to be swayed in their opinions by the views of these “opinion leaders” than directly by the media. People are only influenced by the media when the opinion leaders are in agreement.
The effect of mass media messages on audiences: - In the past this concern has focused on comic books motion pictures and television violence. Move recently, new areas of concern have been added hate messages and instructions for making bombs on the internet antisocial messages in rap music, suicide themes in heavy mental music and drug use and sexual content in television dramatic programs. Gerbueretal (1980) argued that television has become the central cultural arm of society. The television set has become a key number of the family the one wo tells most of the stories most of the time. There are average viewers and heavy viewers, television virtually monopolizes and subsumes other sources of information ideas and conscious. The effect of all this exposure to the same message produces what the researches call cultivation or the teaching of a common worldview, common roles and common values.
Media corrupt children mind: -
Television has shown to have a great influence on the development of school – age children. Television has changed the way we live and the way we carry on our family life. Heavy viewing of television programs has been consistently associated with aggression in both childen and adults (Lie bert & Sprafkin 1988). In general, heavy television viewing is associated with poor school achievement. Heavy viewing also is associated with poorer reading comprehension, poorer language usage and appears to inhibit the development of imagination Television also shapes what is called “world knowledge” this is good in so far as television reflects reality, but this exposure can cause problem for example, children who are heavy viewers of television, especially of realistic actions they shows such as police dramas tend to view the world as a mean and scary place and as more dangerous. Television instills certain paranoia in these children and many make them more fearful and less trusting of other people.
Media induce teen sexual behavior. According to the fact sheet, marketing sex to children, from the campaign for a commercial free childhood, children are bombarded with sexual content and messages. Sexual content regularly marketed to younger children, pre – teens; this affects younger people’s sexual activity and beliefs about sex. Some researchers findings (2003) show that: - In 2003 83% of the episodes of the top 20 shows among teens viewers continued some sexual content, including 20% with sexual intercourse 42% of the songs on CDs in 1999 content 19% included direct description of sexual intercourse. On average, music videos containing 93 sexual situation per hour, including eleven “hard core” scenes depending behavior such as intercourse and oral sex. Girls who watched more than 14 hours of rap music videos per week were more likely to have multiple sex partners and to be diagnosed with sexually transmitted diseases.
Media can influence aggression: By the time the average child complete elementary school, he or she will have watched 8,000 murders and more than 100,000 various other acts of violence. Aggression is highly motivated for people who are in nature aggressive. The males who were most aggressive at the age of 8 were still aggressive at the age of 19 and 30 many of them showing antisocial behavior ranging from traffic violation towards their spouses and children.
Media as cause of prejudice:- The mass media plays a role in the development of prejudice. Members of various racial and ethic minorities were shown to be infrequently in movies or on Television. In addition, when they did appear, they were often cast in low status or comic role.
CONCLUSION
For the Africa continent media industry is facing a lot of problems, regardless loud voices from the media owners, media professionals as well as beneficiaries. Many African government has consistently suppressed private media industries, only because of fear that private media, if given full freedom can reveal bad acts or inefficiencies of the ruling regime The media has, some negative impacts to the society but if the media is purposely designed and directed towards addressing specific community needs very positive impacts are always realized. For example, educational programs in the Radio or TV or special journal or magazines on better hygiene to avoid cholera, precaution against HIV infection, precaution against plants diseases, livestock disease eg Rift valley fever, bird flu etc. all these and many other useful skills and knowledge can be transmitted and disseminated using different types of media. The only most significant factor here is to make sure that the information, can be easily accessed and acquired by the targeted poor communities, the poor communities should be able to get the right information easily and at affordable cost, and language to which the information is written should be understandable to the vast majority.
Experience shows that just after independence, in many African states the media industry was dominated by the state machinery and there was no private media industry. Just after the attainment of independence the state used the media mainly to advocate political ideologies which the rulers acquired or adopted just after independence the aim was to justify the suitability of the selected ideology, for the people to support and implement, in order to bring about national economic development . In some stages some private media industries for example books writers (Ole Soyinka, Chinua Achebe) and many others emerged, but the ruling regimes suppressed, discouraged or burned completely due to fear that they will influence people to act
against the ruling regime. This to some extent slowed down the process of bringing about community economic development; due to lack of democracy transparency and the rule of law. Free and sovereign media industry enhanced public awareness in both social, cultural, economic and political understanding, this will make the community to effectively take part in all national development programs. In the other hand the freedom and sovereignty should have limits to safeguard the national interest the government; should enact media laws and regulations in a bid to institute control over some media which might be up to instigate national disintegration for aim of individual or group gains. The laws and regulations should also aim safeguarding national integrity, identity as well as promoting sustainable development through different types of media with the end results of alleviating poverty of the majority poor in the African continent
“GOD BLESS AFRICA – MUNGU IBARIKI AFRICA-MUNGU IBARIKI TANZANIA”
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